Unravelling the intricacies of fluorescence enhancement in heptamethine cyanine dyes induced by heavy halogen atoms

Abstract

The classic heavy-atom effect refers to the photophysical phenomenon observed in fluorophores, where the interaction with heavy atoms quenches fluorescence emission. Many fluorophores containing heavy halogen atoms, such as xanthenes, BODIPYs, porphyrins, and anthracenes, adhere to this effect, while the photophysical behavior of others, e.g. halogenated heptamethine cyanine dyes, is poorly studied having contradicting results. In this study, we explored for the first time unexpected fluorescence enhancement induced by heavy halogen atoms in heptamethine dyes, contrasting the classic heavy-atom effect. To this end, a series of novel heptamethine cyanine dyes were synthesized and their photophysical properties were experimentally and theoretically investigated. Heavy halogen atoms were found to significantly affect the fluorescence behaviour of heptamethine dyes depending on the number and position of the attached halogens. Thus, the introduction of bromine and iodine atoms at the non-conjugated positions to the chromophore moieties led to an increase in the fluorescence quantum yields, which contradicts the classic principle and could be explained by heavy halogen-induced vibration restrictions. The value of halogen atom-promoted singlet oxygen generation quantum yield Φ_Δ is also not straightforward and depends on the number, position and weight of the halogen atom. The breaking of the classic heavy-atom effect in halogenated heptamethine dyes provides an effective strategy to substantially increase the fluorescence intensity of long-wavelength cyanine dyes, providing new functional advantages for fluorescence imaging, diagnostics, and photodynamic therapy, among other applications.