Towards a conceptualisation of intensive parenting norms: Testing exact and approximate measurement invariance across social and country contexts

Objective: We examine the measurement invariance (MI) of intensive parenting norms across three European countries as well as across gender, education, and parental status. Background: The social norms of intensive parenting have become increasingly dominant in recent decades. However, there is no measurement model of intensive parenting norms in large-scale social surveys and it is unknown whether these norms convey the same meanings across different social and cultural contexts. Method: This study draws on data from the European Social Survey Cross-national Online Survey panel (2017) administered in Estonia, Slovenia, and Great Britain. We conducted a multi-group confirmatory factor analysis and alignment optimization to assess the exact and approximate MI of intensive parenting norms across three countries and social contexts. Results: Due to a poor fit of the previously suggested four-factor model of intensive parenting norms, a revised two-factor model with stimulation and child-centred dimensions - excluding items that measure expert guidance and parental responsibility - was proposed. The two-factor model attained scalar invariance between educational groups and between parents of children aged under 12 years and others; however, only metric invariance was achieved among countries, gender, and parental status. The alignment optimization results suggest that the reduced scale is approximately invariant across all examined groups. Conclusion: This study highlights that the MI of parenting norms should not just be assumed but tested. This study provides insights into the conceptualisation of intensive parenting norms and recommendations for future research and development on measurement.