Impact of wave, tides, and fluid mud on fluvial discharge across a compound clinoform (Pliocene Orinoco Delta)

Compound clinoforms are well-recognized in modern large muddy deltas and in some ancient deltas, but there is still a lack of understanding regarding their lithology variations and the process by which sand from the shoreline clinothem reaches the subaqueous clinothem foresets that are sometimes 100 km away. Net-to-gross, thickness and facies association evaluation show overall coarsening-upward through a 191 m thick exposure of the late Pliocene Orinoco, Lower Morne L'Enfer Formation, with a distinct tripartite lithology distribution. The subaqueous clinothem records a lower, relatively muddy coarsening-upward interval, 112 m thick, with net-to-gross increasing from zero to 60%. On the lower delta front, zero net sand units show graded beds of silt and mud with occasional spring–neap rhythmites, strongly suggesting gravity flows influenced by tidal currents. These foreset beds are overlain by structureless very fine sand, interbedded with deformed wavy to lenticular, grey fluid mud layers that rapidly accumulated near the subaqueous clinoform rollover point. The tidally dominated subaqueous platform (subaqueous delta topset), 1 to 4 m thick, shows zero net sand units with anomalously high mud content, >70%, due to the high near-bed suspended sediment concentration of externally derived fluid mud that migrated littorally alongshore from the Amazon Delta. The interaction of freshwater river flood discharge with fluid-mud banks gave rise to density stratification with fine sand hypopycnally dispersing as a turbulent layer above the denser fluid-mud carpet. The shoreline clinothem (<8 m thick) has high net-to-gross, >85%, attributed to winnowing of sediment by waves and tides. Utilizing net-to-gross trends and facies changes provide useful criteria to identify compound clinoforms in the rock record. The Orinoco Delta deposits, however, are unusual, since fluid mud hinders sand deposition on the platform, allowing for easy identification of platform facies and a clear distinction between the subaqueous and shoreline clinothem in outcrop.