Sense of agency in operations with delays: A free-energy model and application to interface design

Action-feedback delay during operation reduces sense of agency (SoA). In this study, using information-theoretic free energy, we formalized a novel mathematical model for explaining the influence of delay on SoA in continuous operations. Based on the mathematical model, we propose that visualization of predicted future outcomes prevents SoA degradation resulting from response delays. Model-based simulations and operational experiments with participants confirmed that operational delay considerably reduces SoA. Furthermore, the proposed visualization mitigates these problems. Our findings support the model-based interface design for continuous operations with delay to prevent SoA degradation.