Impact of rapid urban construction land expansion on spatial inequalities of ecosystem health in China: Evidence from national, economic regional, and urban agglomeration perspectives

Balancing urban construction land expansion (UCE) with ecosystem health (EHI) is critical for sustainable management. This study evaluates how UCE impacts EHI across China’s cities, economic subregions, and urban agglomerations using multivariate satellite remote sensing data and spatial econometric models. Findings reveal a consistent decline in EHI, with an average annual decrease of 2.012 % between 2000 and 2023, correlating with UCE growth. Declining EHI clusters were concentrated in major urban agglomerations, notably BTH, GBA, and YRD. The analysis highlights a strong negative spatial dependency, with mature urban agglomerations experiencing significant spillover effects, while emerging regions faced more direct impacts. The research underscores the need for cross-regional ecological governance and tailored strategies to enhance ecological resilience in urban development.