Dysfunctions of Circulating Adaptive Immune Cells in End-Stage Liver Disease

End-stage liver disease (ESLD) from acute liver failure to compensated advanced chronic liver disease and decompensated cirrhosis at different stages (chronic decompensation, acute decompensation with or without acute-on-chronic liver failure) has high disease severity and poor patient outcome. Infection is a common complication in patients with ESLD and it is associated with a high mortality rate. Multiple mechanisms are involved in this marked susceptibility to infections, noticeably the inadequate immune response known as immune paresis, as part of cirrhosis-associated immune dysfunction (CAID). Specifically in the adaptive immune arm, lymphocyte impairments—including inadequate activation, reduced ability to secrete effector molecules and enhanced immune suppressive phenotypes—result in compromised systemic immune responses and increased risk of infections. This review summarises current knowledge of alterations in adaptive immune responsiveness and their underlying mechanisms in ESLD. Understanding these mechanisms is of crucial importance in the identification of potential therapeutic targets and applications of targeted treatments beyond antimicrobials, such as immunotherapy.