Glass and faience in the territory of Poland in the 2nd–1st millennium BC: production technology, origin and incoming directions

Abstract Finds of vitreous material from Poland are proof of the long-distance trade routes that passed through the region in the 2nd–1st millennium BC. Faience beads produced in central Europe are known from the Early Bronze Age. Objects made of glass melted in Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Alpine region broadly considered made their way into Polish territory from the Bronze Age II. In the Bronze Age II–III faience beads of Mycenaean and Egyptian provenience are encountered on rare occasions. Glassy faience, made in Italy or the Alpine region, was the most common during the Hallstatt C period. The leader in trading glassy material products in Europe from the BA II–III to the La Tène B period was the Alpine region (especially region of northern Italy). The initial aim of mediating in the transfer to the north of faience and glass beads of Eastern Mediterranean origin grew to include also distribution of products of local production. Artifacts of northern Black Sea provenance started streaming into central Europe in the Hallstatt D, whereas in the La Tène C the Danubian Celtic workshops took over as the primary dealers of the glass jewelry that they produced.