How are energy and employment related? An analysis in ASEAN-5 open economies

Abstract Energy efficiency policy implemented within ASEAN-5 region raises concern over the possibility of compromising economic growth and trade in general, and labour market stability in specific. Previous studies have mostly considered the linear association and ignored nonlinearity between energy consumption and employment. Testing the existence of nonlinear energy-employment nexus for ASEAN-5 in 1991–2015, this paper shows an initially negative association between energy consumption and employment before turning positive beyond the energy and employment thresholds, portraying a U-shaped energy-employment nexus. Policies implementation may target on controlling energy increase beyond the employment threshold, and promoting employment creation beyond the energy threshold.