Cadmium, arsenic, and lead: elements affecting male reproductive health

The decline of male fertility has become a serious public health concern over the last decades, coinciding with an increase in environmental exposure to toxic pollutants. Toxic elements cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), and lead (Pb) seem to contribute to declining fertility in men through progressive impairment of semen quality. Reproductive toxicity of these elements is mediated by multiple mechanisms. Although experimental animal studies generally support an adverse role of Cd, As, and Pb in human reproduction issues, data on the effects induced by the levels of toxic elements that represent environmental exposure are inconsistent. This review summarizes reports from experimental studies in animals and epidemiological observational findings from environmental exposure to Cd, As, and Pb, with special focus on semen quality parameters as the indicator of male fertility.