Ecosystem Services, Poverty Alleviation and Land Productivity: A Critical Survey of a Complex “Ménage à Trois”

Ecosystem services, like water provision or pollination, may increase both agricultural productivity (that is, the capability of the sector to increase the output in volume and value) and alleviate poverty (for instance, through food provision). In addition, increased agricultural productivity can help alleviate poverty by increasing the profitability of the sector, the income of the farmers, and the rates of return on (natural and other) capital investments. However, those beneficial effects come at the cost of (possible) deterioration of existing ESs, that, prima facie, represented the main driver for the generation of benefits. This paper, therefore, identifies and discusses the implications (and possible remedies) of a critical issue that, to our knowledge, is under-studied in an integrated context and methodological approach.