Cardiac CT blooming artifacts: clinical significance, root causes and potential solutions.

This review paper aims to summarize cardiac CT blooming artifacts, how they present clinically and what their root causes and potential solutions are. A literature survey was performed covering any publications with a specific interest in calcium blooming and stent blooming in cardiac CT. The claims from literature are compared and interpreted, aiming at narrowing down the root causes and most promising solutions for blooming artifacts. More than 30 journal publications were identified with specific relevance to blooming artifacts. The main reported causes of blooming artifacts are the partial volume effect, motion artifacts and beam hardening. The proposed solutions are classified as high-resolution CT hardware, high-resolution CT reconstruction, subtraction techniques and post-processing techniques, with a special emphasis on deep learning (DL) techniques. The partial volume effect is the leading cause of blooming artifacts. The partial volume effect can be minimized by increasing the CT spatial resolution through higher-resolution CT hardware or advanced high-resolution CT reconstruction. In addition, DL techniques have shown great promise to correct for blooming artifacts. A combination of these techniques could avoid repeat scans for subtraction techniques.