Hydrogen Sulfide Responsive Phototherapy Agents: Design Strategies and Biological Applications

Abstract

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is one of the critical gasotransmitters, which play important roles in regular physiological processes, especially in vital signaling pathways. However, fluctuations in endogenous H₂S concentration can be linked to serious health problems, such as neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, diabetes, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, and hypertension. Thus, it has attracted a great deal of attention in therapeutic applications, specifically in the field of phototherapy. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) are two subclasses of phototherapy, which utilize either reactive oxygen species (ROS) or local temperature increase upon irradiation of a photosensitizer (PS) to realize the therapeutic action. Phototherapies offer unique advantages compared to conventional methods; thus, they are highly promising and popular. One of the design principles followed in new generation PSs is to build activity-based PSs, which stay inactive before getting activated by disease-associated stimuli. These activatable PSs dramatically improve the selectivity and efficacy of the therapy. In this review, we summarize small molecule and nanomaterial-based PDT and PTT agents that are activated selectively by H₂S to initiate their cytotoxic effect. We incorporate single mode PDT and PTT agents along with synergistic and/or multimodal photosensitizers that can combine more than one therapeutic approach. Additionally, H₂S-responsive theranostic agents, which offer therapy and imaging at the same time, are highlighted. Design approaches, working principles, and biological applications for each example are discussed in detail.