Reproductive roles as likely drivers of sexual dimorphism in New Zealand's endangered mountain parrot, the Kea

Lydia R. W. McLean, T. Horton, B. Robertson, F. Robertson, Amanda L. Greer, Ximena J. Nelson
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Ecological selection is associated with foraging niche divergence between the sexes to reduce inter-sexual competition or due to differing dietary needs associated with reproductive role. Despite the widespread occurrence of sexual dimorphism throughout the animal kingdom, empirical evidence for ecological causation is rare. We conducted the first molecular confirmation of sexual size dimorphism in Kea. We then employed Bayesian mixing models to explore potential correlations between diet and bill size to determine whether the dimorphism is linked to diet partitioning throughout all age classes (fledgling, juvenile, subadult, and adult). Female Kea foraged at a consistent, relatively low, trophic level throughout their lifetime, whereas male trophic level increased with age to a maximum at subadult stage, prior to breeding for the first time—a time in which males may have been actively learning extractive foraging techniques associated with a high protein diet. Adult males foraged at a high trophic level relative to all groups except subadult males. As males provision females on the nest, which in turn provision young, these results highlight that the evolution of morphology and reproductive output may be linked in circuitous ways. LAY SUMMARY Males and females of a species commonly differ in size and shape. This may be due to selection for features that enhance reproductive success through their role in courtship and mating. Sexual dimorphism can also result from differing ecological needs enhancing survivability per se, such as reducing food competition between the sexes, or due to differing reproductive roles. Male and female Kea parrots differ in bill and body size. The cause of bill size difference may be linked to dietary differences. We compared stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen in Kea feathers and blood to potential food sources to determine Kea diet. Adult male Kea eat more animal matter than females and younger males. The male's larger bill may facilitate extracting high protein (animal) food sources needed for nest provisioning during the reproductive season, leading to selection for a larger bill size. RESUMEN Nestor notabilis, el loro de montaña en peligro de extinción de Nueva Zelanda, muestra un moderado dimorfismo sexual con un sesgo hacia los machos en las medidas lineales del cuerpo (∼5%) y un marcado dimorfismo en el tamaño del pico (12-14%). Usando análisis de isótopos estables de carbono y nitrógeno en las plumas y sangre de individuos muestreados de N. notabilis de una parte significativa (∼10%) de la población actual, determinamos que el dimorfismo en el pico puede ser un rasgo seleccionado ecológicamente que mejora la capacidad de los machos para buscar alimento en un nivel trófico más alto para proveer a las hembras y crías durante la época de anidación. El dimorfismo sexual puede surgir a través de la selección sexual, impulsores ecológicos o una combinación de ambos. La selección ecológica está asociada con la divergencia de nicho de forrajeo entre los sexos para reducir la competencia entre sexos o debido a diferentes necesidades en la dieta asociadas con el rol reproductivo. A pesar de la amplia presencia de dimorfismo sexual en el reino animal, la evidencia empírica de la causalidad ecológica es rara. Realizamos la primera confirmación molecular del dimorfismo sexual en el tamaño de N. notabilis. Luego utilizamos modelos bayesianos mixtos para explorar potenciales correlaciones entre la dieta y el tamaño del pico para determinar si el dimorfismo está relacionado con la partición de la dieta en todas las clases de edad (volantón, juvenil, sub-adulto, adulto). Las hembras de N. notabilis forrajearon a un nivel trófico constante y relativamente bajo durante toda su vida, mientras que el nivel trófico de los machos aumentó con la edad, alcanzando su máximo en la etapa sub-adulta, antes de criar por primera vez, momento en el que los machos podrían haber estado aprendiendo activamente técnicas de búsqueda de alimento asociadas con una dieta rica en proteínas. Los machos adultos forrajearon a un nivel trófico alto en comparación con todos los grupos excepto los machos sub-adultos. Dado que los machos proveen alimento a las hembras en el nido, quienes a su vez alimentan a las crías, estos resultados destacan que la evolución de la morfología y el rendimiento reproductivo pueden estar relacionados de modos indirectos.","PeriodicalId":382448,"journal":{"name":"The Auk","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0000,"publicationDate":"2023-08-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"1","resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":null,"PeriodicalName":"The Auk","FirstCategoryId":"1085","ListUrlMain":"https://doi.org/10.1093/ornithology/ukad038","RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":null,"ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":null,"EPubDate":"","PubModel":"","JCR":"","JCRName":"","Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 1

Abstract

ABSTRACT New Zealand's endangered mountain parrot, the Kea (Nestor notabilis), exhibits moderate male-biased sexual size dimorphism in linear body measurements (∼5%) and a pronounced dimorphism in bill size (12–14%). Using stable isotope analyses of carbon and nitrogen in Kea feathers and blood sampled from a significant portion (∼10%) of the extant population, we determined that Kea bill dimorphism may be an ecologically selected trait that enhances male Kea's ability to forage at a higher trophic level in order to provision females and offspring during nesting. Sexual dimorphism can arise through sexual selection, ecological drivers, or a combination of both. Ecological selection is associated with foraging niche divergence between the sexes to reduce inter-sexual competition or due to differing dietary needs associated with reproductive role. Despite the widespread occurrence of sexual dimorphism throughout the animal kingdom, empirical evidence for ecological causation is rare. We conducted the first molecular confirmation of sexual size dimorphism in Kea. We then employed Bayesian mixing models to explore potential correlations between diet and bill size to determine whether the dimorphism is linked to diet partitioning throughout all age classes (fledgling, juvenile, subadult, and adult). Female Kea foraged at a consistent, relatively low, trophic level throughout their lifetime, whereas male trophic level increased with age to a maximum at subadult stage, prior to breeding for the first time—a time in which males may have been actively learning extractive foraging techniques associated with a high protein diet. Adult males foraged at a high trophic level relative to all groups except subadult males. As males provision females on the nest, which in turn provision young, these results highlight that the evolution of morphology and reproductive output may be linked in circuitous ways. LAY SUMMARY Males and females of a species commonly differ in size and shape. This may be due to selection for features that enhance reproductive success through their role in courtship and mating. Sexual dimorphism can also result from differing ecological needs enhancing survivability per se, such as reducing food competition between the sexes, or due to differing reproductive roles. Male and female Kea parrots differ in bill and body size. The cause of bill size difference may be linked to dietary differences. We compared stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen in Kea feathers and blood to potential food sources to determine Kea diet. Adult male Kea eat more animal matter than females and younger males. The male's larger bill may facilitate extracting high protein (animal) food sources needed for nest provisioning during the reproductive season, leading to selection for a larger bill size. RESUMEN Nestor notabilis, el loro de montaña en peligro de extinción de Nueva Zelanda, muestra un moderado dimorfismo sexual con un sesgo hacia los machos en las medidas lineales del cuerpo (∼5%) y un marcado dimorfismo en el tamaño del pico (12-14%). Usando análisis de isótopos estables de carbono y nitrógeno en las plumas y sangre de individuos muestreados de N. notabilis de una parte significativa (∼10%) de la población actual, determinamos que el dimorfismo en el pico puede ser un rasgo seleccionado ecológicamente que mejora la capacidad de los machos para buscar alimento en un nivel trófico más alto para proveer a las hembras y crías durante la época de anidación. El dimorfismo sexual puede surgir a través de la selección sexual, impulsores ecológicos o una combinación de ambos. La selección ecológica está asociada con la divergencia de nicho de forrajeo entre los sexos para reducir la competencia entre sexos o debido a diferentes necesidades en la dieta asociadas con el rol reproductivo. A pesar de la amplia presencia de dimorfismo sexual en el reino animal, la evidencia empírica de la causalidad ecológica es rara. Realizamos la primera confirmación molecular del dimorfismo sexual en el tamaño de N. notabilis. Luego utilizamos modelos bayesianos mixtos para explorar potenciales correlaciones entre la dieta y el tamaño del pico para determinar si el dimorfismo está relacionado con la partición de la dieta en todas las clases de edad (volantón, juvenil, sub-adulto, adulto). Las hembras de N. notabilis forrajearon a un nivel trófico constante y relativamente bajo durante toda su vida, mientras que el nivel trófico de los machos aumentó con la edad, alcanzando su máximo en la etapa sub-adulta, antes de criar por primera vez, momento en el que los machos podrían haber estado aprendiendo activamente técnicas de búsqueda de alimento asociadas con una dieta rica en proteínas. Los machos adultos forrajearon a un nivel trófico alto en comparación con todos los grupos excepto los machos sub-adultos. Dado que los machos proveen alimento a las hembras en el nido, quienes a su vez alimentan a las crías, estos resultados destacan que la evolución de la morfología y el rendimiento reproductivo pueden estar relacionados de modos indirectos.
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新西兰濒临灭绝的山鹦鹉Kea的生殖角色可能是两性异形的驱动因素
由于雄性在巢中为雌性提供食物,而雌性又为后代提供食物,这些结果强调了形态和繁殖性能的进化可能是间接相关的。
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