RECONCEPTUALIZING GENDER: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE FROM STRUCTURE TO PROCESS AND INTERSECTIONALITY

Abstract

Brief Introduction to the Study of GenderFrom sex roles to gender, one of the most important theoretical advances in the study of gender has been the development of an interactionist perspective, a body of theory and empirical work that focuses on the "doing" of gender. The study of gender was really a Western invention. With the end of the nineteenth century came the doctrine of equal rights with Engels's work culminating in the idea of a social system with men and women based on a historical trajectory. However, Engels assumed a naturalness of the categories of women and men; there were views such as "true" men and "true" women (Connell, 1987; 2002). The 1940s produced terms such as "sex role," "male role," and "female role." When studying gender and relationships, it took many decades for scholars to start assessing the continued production of gender inequality in a variety of institutional settings (Connell, 1987). Once this was acknowledged, others began to focus on the intersectionality paradigm which looks at a variety of forms of oppression (e.g. race/ethnicity, sexuality, class) that all interact together; they are not separate forms of inequality but rather additive in nature (Acker, 1988; Hill Collins, 1999; Anderson & Hill Collins, 2007; Kane, 2012; Hill Collins, 2015).Sex RolesSex role theory consists of a large body of literature. Most formulations have five points in common: 1) there is a distinction between the person and the position she occupies; 2) there is an action or role behavior that she is assigned to; 3) the role expectations or norms are defined by the actions of that position; 4) they are held by people occupying counter-positions (e.g. role senders, reference groups); and 5) they are enforced by means of sanctions. Role theory is one approach to studying social structure through the restrictions proposed by stereotyped gender expectations (Hill Collins, 2004). This means that being a man means something different than being a woman. Each individual is expected to respond to different social expectations and connect social structures to the formation of personality. There is a dominant "norm" for behavior; one who departs is seen as personally eccentric or the product of inappropriate socialization (Connell, 1987; Connell, 2002). These individuals are the ones who either consciously or unconsciously choose to move away from the stereotyped "male" and "female" roles. This can be through their appearance, behaviors, jobs, or other outlets of gender expression. Although those who choose to deviate risk the judgment of others as everyone is held accountable for acting/looking like their assigned sex role (Ridgeway, 2011; Kane, 2012).From Sex Roles to GenderMillman and Kanter's work sparked the era of feminist thought in the social sciences (Hess & Marx Ferree, 1987). Feminist thought, as a theory, looked at the departure from traditional sex role definitions. Hess and Marx Ferree (1987) reported that the study of men and woman has shifted from an emphasis on sex differences to a preoccupation with sex roles, and finally to the acknowledgement that gender is a central organizing principle. Believing that there are expected and "natural" roles for the male/female dichotomy is almost an unconscious belief; however, few can refute the research that shows that the male/female dichotomy is socially constructed and far from "natural."Prior to recognizing gender as an, if not the, organizing principle of social life, sex was described in terms of biology and hormones. Gender then, was described in terms of achieved status based on different means (West & Fenstermaker, 1995; West & Zimmerman, 1987). The idea of sex was based on the biological sex which was defined at birth. Then, one must learn their appropriate gender role per societal expectations based on history, time, and social context (Chafetz as cited in Meyers, Anderson, & Risman, 1998; Hill Collins, 2015). …