On Heaven, Dao, Qi, Li, and Ze

Abstract

"Heaven" is an important concept in ancient Chinese philosophy. In earliest times, "heaven" had two meanings: one referred to an anthropomorphic god, the other to the sky, the heavens, the complement of earth. Early religious thought believed that heaven had consciousness and was the supreme ruler of the world. When Confucius spoke of "heaven" he thought of it in this sense of the supreme ruler, as when he said, "If heaven had really intended this culture to perish, then later generations would not have obtained this culture. Since heaven has not destroyed this culture, what can the people of Kuang do about it!" (Analects, 9:5). The rise and fall of cultures, as well as the safety and danger of the individual, are determined by heaven. But when talking about heaven, Confucius sometimes was referring to Nature, as when he said, "How great a prince was Yao. Ah, yes! Only heaven is great, only Yao followed it" (Analects, 8:19). The statement "Only heaven is great" cannot be explained as meaning that only god...