The Life and Afterlife of Swedish Biograph: From Commercial Circulation to Archival Practices

IF 0.3 4区 社会学 0 HUMANITIES, MULTIDISCIPLINARY SCANDINAVIAN STUDIES Pub Date : 2023-10-01 DOI:10.5406/21638195.95.3.09
Gunnar Iversen
{"title":"The Life and Afterlife of Swedish Biograph: From Commercial Circulation to Archival Practices","authors":"Gunnar Iversen","doi":"10.5406/21638195.95.3.09","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"On September 22, 1941, a disastrous explosive fire took place at Vinterviken outside of Stockholm. In the devastating explosion, two people were killed, and many negatives of feature films produced by the Swedish film company Svensk Filmindustri were destroyed. The highly flammable nitrate films that the company stored in one of their facilities were consumed when a film-scrap business next door caught fire. Most of the films the company produced in its earliest years, as AB Svenska Biografteatern (Swedish Biograph), disappeared in the fire. This was the most disastrous of several accidents that befell Svensk Filmindustri and Swedish cinema in these years. A few years earlier, in 1935, another explosion happened, but that time, very little footage was destroyed, and in 1948, yet another fire destroyed a sizeable number of the paper documents held by Svensk Filmindustri.Especially, the 1941 explosion and fire had important repercussions for the afterlife of early film production in Sweden. The loss of original materials, and first and foremost, film negatives, made it hard to discuss and evaluate Sweden's early film production. This also impacted the so-called Golden Age of Swedish cinema between 1916 and 1924. Some of the most important films made in Sweden in these years, like Mauritz Stiller's Vingarne (1916; The Wings), today regarded as the first explicit love story between two men in cinema, were lost for many decades. Many other films remain lost and may never resurface.Some of the surviving films have been canonized as “masterpieces” of early cinema, especially a small number of feature films by the directors Victor Sjöström and Mauritz Stiller, but early film production in Sweden has often been overshadowed by Danish, French, Italian, and US cinema. Despite the recognition of the importance of films like Ingeborg Holm (dir. Sjöström 1913) and Erotikon (dir. Stiller 1920), the lack of international critical and academic attention to Swedish cinema before and during the Golden Age is striking. And the explosion at Vinterviken is one of the causes of this lack of attention.A book that may change this situation of neglect is Jan Olsson's The Life and Afterlife of Swedish Biograph: From Commercial Circulation to Archival Practices. Professor emeritus Olsson is the perfect man for the job of illuminating the many lives of the films produced by Svenska Bio in the early 1910s, and putting early Swedish cinema back on the map of early film history internationally. Since the mid-1980s, Olsson has published a large number of books and articles about early Swedish cinema, as well as on other topics like Hitchcock and cinematic culture in Los Angeles, and in his new book, he brings together ideas and discourses he has spent many years researching. A meticulously researched and sometimes overwhelmingly detailed book, The Life and Afterlife of Swedish Biograph is rich and rewarding. It is more than just a complex case study of early Swedish cinema, and also addresses issues regarding canon formations, archival practices, and historical research more generally. Even though the book will appeal to readers interested in Swedish cinema, or early cinema in general, the book is also a fascinating journey through paper trails, censorship records, newspaper articles, company ledgers, and anecdotal memoirs. Anyone interested in how a historian works with sources will also appreciate this book.On one level, Olsson outlines the story of early Swedish cinema, before the companies Svenska Bio and Skandia merged into Svensk Filmindustri in 1919. Olsson focuses mainly on the years between 1912—when Svenska Bio hired Sjöström and Stiller and started producing films at Lidingö outside of Stockholm—and 1917, when the company changed their production practices after the success of Sjöström's Terje Vigen. Usually, when the story of early Swedish cinema is told, authors will start with Terje Vigen, but Olsson gives us the background and backstory in great detail.On another level, Olsson describes and discusses the afterlife of early Swedish cinema. Even though his focus is mostly on films produced before 1917, he also discusses many of the so-called Swedish Golden Age films in detail. When covering early Swedish cinema, Olsson's emphasis is mostly on the development of film style. Elegantly and with an abundance of sources, he discusses the changes in style, business strategies, and production practices both before and immediately after 1917. The international success of Terje Vigen saw the beginning of what was later called a Golden Age of Swedish cinema, and Olsson carefully discusses the style shift in Swedish cinema that led to this era. Using famous literary texts, like Henrik Ibsen's poem in Sjöström's Terje Vigen, but also the adoption of American-inspired filmmaking devices like close-ups and analytic editing, Swedish films reached a new level of success on the international market. Olsson traces a history of film style in early Swedish cinema and uses this not only to tell us something about historical and aesthetic change, but also links these changes to film reception, canon building, and taste formations. Especially the adoption of a more “American” style, as well as a change from “peasant films” to more modern subjects, were at the heart of many discussions in Sweden in the 1910s and 1920s.By the term “afterlife” in the title, Olsson means something more than just how certain Swedish films from the 1910s and 1920s have been canonized. The book also meticulously discusses how the material traces (film copies, film scripts, business letters, censorship cards) can give us different information and lead to new interpretations of these films and the company Svenska Bio. Many early films have survived in severely truncated versions, like Sjöström's Ingeborg Holm, and paying attention to other sources might change our interpretation of certain canonical films, or may at least remind us that history only comes to us in a changed and often fragmented form. That this should lead to caution when discussing especially early cinema is obvious from Olsson's many discussions and close readings.A central concept in Olsson's book is what he calls “film ecology,” by which he means the whole environment in which a film is conceived and produced. Olsson initially points out not only how market functions and censorship practices, but also more fundamental material elements, like reel length and shot scale, are essential to the understanding of early cinema. This gives his micro-history an implicit polemical force. All the old film-theoretical discussions of the immersed spectator get a new twist in Olsson's discussions of how the use of a single-projector system in Sweden resulted in a non-immersed experience characterized by many short breaks when a new reel was put in the projector. This is one of many examples of how issues of materiality and historical in-depth research can cross-pollinate and question theoretical discussions in film studies.The book concentrates on the dynamic interrelationships between two distinct networks, the first being the commercial network when films are scripted, produced, and released in a both local and global market, and the second being the archival network when films circulate in noncommercial contexts such as television broadcasts, festivals, and archival screenings. So Olsson does not stop when the Golden Age is over; he also meticulously follows the historical traces to today, like a forensic detective, to see how canons are built, how conceptions of the Golden Age are constructed, and how these old films become part of new archival networks.By focusing on corporate strategies and financial matters as much as changes in style, Olsson gives us a rich and detailed picture of early filmmaking in Sweden in the 1910s, the period that led up to the Golden Age. The Life and Afterlife of Swedish Biograph is partly historical overview and partly historical detective story. Olsson focuses more on style than content, and sometimes while reading the book, I was yearning for a discussion of the content of films like Ingeborg Holm, Vingarne, and Balettprimadonnan (dir. Stiller 1916), and how these films resonated with contemporary Swedish society, but Olsson gives us a wealth of new information as well as perspectives that are broader than just early Swedish cinema. If you want to know about film production in Sweden in the 1910s and how these films have traveled through archives and histories, Olsson's book is the perfect start.In 1920, the journalist, screenwriter, and film director Carl Theodor Dreyer wrote a newspaper article about Swedish cinema (“Svensk film,” Dagbladet, January 7: 7). Like many of his contemporaries, Dreyer felt that Swedish directors like Victor Sjöström and Mauritz Stiller had given cinema a soul. But Dreyer saw that it was the Swedish director's appropriation of “American” stylistic elements, like the close-up, that created this new soul. The close-up, Dreyer wrote, forced actors to abandon theatrical antics: “The days of the grimace were over. Film had found its way to human representation.” The road to this “human representation” in cinema is what Jan Olsson's book is all about.","PeriodicalId":44446,"journal":{"name":"SCANDINAVIAN STUDIES","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3000,"publicationDate":"2023-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"0","resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":null,"PeriodicalName":"SCANDINAVIAN STUDIES","FirstCategoryId":"1085","ListUrlMain":"https://doi.org/10.5406/21638195.95.3.09","RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":null,"EPubDate":"","PubModel":"","JCR":"0","JCRName":"HUMANITIES, MULTIDISCIPLINARY","Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0

Abstract

On September 22, 1941, a disastrous explosive fire took place at Vinterviken outside of Stockholm. In the devastating explosion, two people were killed, and many negatives of feature films produced by the Swedish film company Svensk Filmindustri were destroyed. The highly flammable nitrate films that the company stored in one of their facilities were consumed when a film-scrap business next door caught fire. Most of the films the company produced in its earliest years, as AB Svenska Biografteatern (Swedish Biograph), disappeared in the fire. This was the most disastrous of several accidents that befell Svensk Filmindustri and Swedish cinema in these years. A few years earlier, in 1935, another explosion happened, but that time, very little footage was destroyed, and in 1948, yet another fire destroyed a sizeable number of the paper documents held by Svensk Filmindustri.Especially, the 1941 explosion and fire had important repercussions for the afterlife of early film production in Sweden. The loss of original materials, and first and foremost, film negatives, made it hard to discuss and evaluate Sweden's early film production. This also impacted the so-called Golden Age of Swedish cinema between 1916 and 1924. Some of the most important films made in Sweden in these years, like Mauritz Stiller's Vingarne (1916; The Wings), today regarded as the first explicit love story between two men in cinema, were lost for many decades. Many other films remain lost and may never resurface.Some of the surviving films have been canonized as “masterpieces” of early cinema, especially a small number of feature films by the directors Victor Sjöström and Mauritz Stiller, but early film production in Sweden has often been overshadowed by Danish, French, Italian, and US cinema. Despite the recognition of the importance of films like Ingeborg Holm (dir. Sjöström 1913) and Erotikon (dir. Stiller 1920), the lack of international critical and academic attention to Swedish cinema before and during the Golden Age is striking. And the explosion at Vinterviken is one of the causes of this lack of attention.A book that may change this situation of neglect is Jan Olsson's The Life and Afterlife of Swedish Biograph: From Commercial Circulation to Archival Practices. Professor emeritus Olsson is the perfect man for the job of illuminating the many lives of the films produced by Svenska Bio in the early 1910s, and putting early Swedish cinema back on the map of early film history internationally. Since the mid-1980s, Olsson has published a large number of books and articles about early Swedish cinema, as well as on other topics like Hitchcock and cinematic culture in Los Angeles, and in his new book, he brings together ideas and discourses he has spent many years researching. A meticulously researched and sometimes overwhelmingly detailed book, The Life and Afterlife of Swedish Biograph is rich and rewarding. It is more than just a complex case study of early Swedish cinema, and also addresses issues regarding canon formations, archival practices, and historical research more generally. Even though the book will appeal to readers interested in Swedish cinema, or early cinema in general, the book is also a fascinating journey through paper trails, censorship records, newspaper articles, company ledgers, and anecdotal memoirs. Anyone interested in how a historian works with sources will also appreciate this book.On one level, Olsson outlines the story of early Swedish cinema, before the companies Svenska Bio and Skandia merged into Svensk Filmindustri in 1919. Olsson focuses mainly on the years between 1912—when Svenska Bio hired Sjöström and Stiller and started producing films at Lidingö outside of Stockholm—and 1917, when the company changed their production practices after the success of Sjöström's Terje Vigen. Usually, when the story of early Swedish cinema is told, authors will start with Terje Vigen, but Olsson gives us the background and backstory in great detail.On another level, Olsson describes and discusses the afterlife of early Swedish cinema. Even though his focus is mostly on films produced before 1917, he also discusses many of the so-called Swedish Golden Age films in detail. When covering early Swedish cinema, Olsson's emphasis is mostly on the development of film style. Elegantly and with an abundance of sources, he discusses the changes in style, business strategies, and production practices both before and immediately after 1917. The international success of Terje Vigen saw the beginning of what was later called a Golden Age of Swedish cinema, and Olsson carefully discusses the style shift in Swedish cinema that led to this era. Using famous literary texts, like Henrik Ibsen's poem in Sjöström's Terje Vigen, but also the adoption of American-inspired filmmaking devices like close-ups and analytic editing, Swedish films reached a new level of success on the international market. Olsson traces a history of film style in early Swedish cinema and uses this not only to tell us something about historical and aesthetic change, but also links these changes to film reception, canon building, and taste formations. Especially the adoption of a more “American” style, as well as a change from “peasant films” to more modern subjects, were at the heart of many discussions in Sweden in the 1910s and 1920s.By the term “afterlife” in the title, Olsson means something more than just how certain Swedish films from the 1910s and 1920s have been canonized. The book also meticulously discusses how the material traces (film copies, film scripts, business letters, censorship cards) can give us different information and lead to new interpretations of these films and the company Svenska Bio. Many early films have survived in severely truncated versions, like Sjöström's Ingeborg Holm, and paying attention to other sources might change our interpretation of certain canonical films, or may at least remind us that history only comes to us in a changed and often fragmented form. That this should lead to caution when discussing especially early cinema is obvious from Olsson's many discussions and close readings.A central concept in Olsson's book is what he calls “film ecology,” by which he means the whole environment in which a film is conceived and produced. Olsson initially points out not only how market functions and censorship practices, but also more fundamental material elements, like reel length and shot scale, are essential to the understanding of early cinema. This gives his micro-history an implicit polemical force. All the old film-theoretical discussions of the immersed spectator get a new twist in Olsson's discussions of how the use of a single-projector system in Sweden resulted in a non-immersed experience characterized by many short breaks when a new reel was put in the projector. This is one of many examples of how issues of materiality and historical in-depth research can cross-pollinate and question theoretical discussions in film studies.The book concentrates on the dynamic interrelationships between two distinct networks, the first being the commercial network when films are scripted, produced, and released in a both local and global market, and the second being the archival network when films circulate in noncommercial contexts such as television broadcasts, festivals, and archival screenings. So Olsson does not stop when the Golden Age is over; he also meticulously follows the historical traces to today, like a forensic detective, to see how canons are built, how conceptions of the Golden Age are constructed, and how these old films become part of new archival networks.By focusing on corporate strategies and financial matters as much as changes in style, Olsson gives us a rich and detailed picture of early filmmaking in Sweden in the 1910s, the period that led up to the Golden Age. The Life and Afterlife of Swedish Biograph is partly historical overview and partly historical detective story. Olsson focuses more on style than content, and sometimes while reading the book, I was yearning for a discussion of the content of films like Ingeborg Holm, Vingarne, and Balettprimadonnan (dir. Stiller 1916), and how these films resonated with contemporary Swedish society, but Olsson gives us a wealth of new information as well as perspectives that are broader than just early Swedish cinema. If you want to know about film production in Sweden in the 1910s and how these films have traveled through archives and histories, Olsson's book is the perfect start.In 1920, the journalist, screenwriter, and film director Carl Theodor Dreyer wrote a newspaper article about Swedish cinema (“Svensk film,” Dagbladet, January 7: 7). Like many of his contemporaries, Dreyer felt that Swedish directors like Victor Sjöström and Mauritz Stiller had given cinema a soul. But Dreyer saw that it was the Swedish director's appropriation of “American” stylistic elements, like the close-up, that created this new soul. The close-up, Dreyer wrote, forced actors to abandon theatrical antics: “The days of the grimace were over. Film had found its way to human representation.” The road to this “human representation” in cinema is what Jan Olsson's book is all about.
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瑞典传记的生前与死后:从商业流通到档案实践
1941年9月22日,斯德哥尔摩郊外的温特维肯发生了一场灾难性的爆炸性火灾。在这次毁灭性的爆炸中,两人丧生,瑞典电影公司Svensk filmindustrii制作的许多故事片的底片被毁。该公司储存在其中一个设施中的高度易燃的硝酸盐薄膜在隔壁一家废膜企业起火时被消耗掉了。该公司早年制作的大部分电影,如AB Svenska Biografteatern(瑞典传记),都在大火中消失了。这是这些年来发生在斯文斯克电影工业和瑞典电影行业的几起事故中最具灾难性的一次。几年前,在1935年,又发生了一次爆炸,但那一次,很少有录像被毁,1948年,另一场大火烧毁了斯文斯克电影工业公司持有的大量纸质文件。特别是,1941年的爆炸和火灾对瑞典早期电影制作的后世产生了重要影响。原始材料的丢失,首先是底片的丢失,使得讨论和评价瑞典早期的电影制作变得困难。这也影响了1916年至1924年间瑞典电影的黄金时代。这些年来,瑞典制作了一些最重要的电影,比如莫里茨·斯蒂勒的《温加恩》(1916;《翅膀》,今天被认为是电影中第一个明确的两个男人之间的爱情故事,已经消失了几十年。许多其他电影仍然失传,可能永远不会重新出现。一些幸存下来的电影被奉为早期电影的“杰作”,尤其是导演维克多Sjöström和莫里茨斯蒂勒的少数故事片,但瑞典早期的电影制作往往被丹麦、法国、意大利和美国电影所掩盖。尽管人们认识到《英格博格·霍尔姆》(Ingeborg Holm,导演)等电影的重要性。Sjöström 1913)和Erotikon(导演。Stiller, 1920),在黄金时代之前和黄金时代期间,国际评论界和学术界对瑞典电影缺乏关注是惊人的。文特维肯的爆炸是这种缺乏关注的原因之一。有一本书可能会改变这种被忽视的状况,那就是Jan Olsson的《瑞典传记的生活与来世:从商业流通到档案实践》。名誉教授奥尔森是一个完美的人,他照亮了瑞典生物公司在20世纪10年代早期制作的电影的许多生活,并将早期瑞典电影重新置于早期国际电影史的地图上。自20世纪80年代中期以来,奥尔森出版了大量关于早期瑞典电影的书籍和文章,以及希区柯克和洛杉矶电影文化等其他主题,在他的新书中,他汇集了他多年来研究的思想和话语。这本书研究细致,有时极其详细,《瑞典传记的生活和来世》内容丰富,值得一读。它不仅仅是早期瑞典电影的一个复杂的案例研究,而且还解决了关于佳能形成、档案实践和更普遍的历史研究的问题。尽管这本书会吸引对瑞典电影或早期电影感兴趣的读者,但这本书也是一段迷人的旅程,通过书面记录、审查记录、报纸文章、公司账簿和轶事回忆录。任何对历史学家如何处理资料感兴趣的人也会欣赏这本书。在一个层面上,奥尔森概述了瑞典早期电影的故事,在Svenska Bio和Skandia公司于1919年合并为Svensk film industries之前。奥尔森主要讲述了从1912年到1917年,Svenska Bio聘请Sjöström和Stiller并开始在斯德哥尔摩郊外的Lidingö制作电影,到Sjöström的《Terje Vigen》获得成功后,公司改变了他们的制作方式。通常,当讲述早期瑞典电影的故事时,作者会从《泰耶·维根》开始,但奥尔森给了我们非常详细的背景和背景故事。在另一个层面上,奥尔森描述并讨论了早期瑞典电影的来世。尽管他主要关注的是1917年以前的电影,但他也详细讨论了许多所谓的瑞典黄金时代电影。在报道早期瑞典电影时,奥尔森的重点主要放在电影风格的发展上。他以优美的笔法和丰富的资料,讨论了1917年前后风格、商业策略和生产实践的变化。《Terje Vigen》在国际上的成功见证了后来被称为瑞典电影黄金时代的开始,奥尔森仔细讨论了瑞典电影的风格转变,导致了这个时代的到来。利用著名的文学文本,如亨里克·易卜生在Sjöström的《Terje Vigen》中的诗,以及采用美国风格的电影制作手段,如特写镜头和分析剪辑,瑞典电影在国际市场上取得了新的成功。 Olsson追溯了早期瑞典电影的电影风格的历史,并以此来告诉我们一些关于历史和审美的变化,而且还将这些变化与电影接受、经典建筑和品味形成联系起来。尤其是采用更“美国”的风格,以及从“农民电影”到更现代的主题的转变,是20世纪10年代和20年代瑞典许多讨论的核心。通过片名中的“来世”一词,奥尔森的意思不仅仅是20世纪10年代和20世纪20年代的某些瑞典电影被奉为圣典。这本书还细致地讨论了材料痕迹(电影副本、电影剧本、商业信函、审查卡)如何给我们提供不同的信息,并导致对这些电影和Svenska Bio公司的新解释。许多早期的电影都以严重删节的版本幸存下来,比如Sjöström的《英格博格·霍尔姆》(Ingeborg Holm),关注其他来源可能会改变我们对某些经典电影的解读,或者至少可能提醒我们,历史只会以一种改变的、往往是支离破碎的形式出现在我们面前。从奥尔森的许多讨论和仔细阅读中可以明显看出,在讨论早期电影时,这一点应该引起谨慎。奥尔森书中的一个核心概念是他所谓的“电影生态”,他指的是电影构思和制作的整个环境。奥尔森首先指出,不仅仅是市场的功能和审查制度,更重要的是更基本的物质元素,如卷轴长度和镜头比例,对于理解早期电影是必不可少的。这使他的微观历史具有一种隐含的辩论力量。所有关于沉浸式观众的老电影理论讨论都在Olsson的讨论中得到了新的转折,即瑞典使用单一放映机系统如何导致了一种非沉浸式体验,其特点是在放映机中放入新卷轴时需要许多短暂的休息。这是物质性问题和历史深入研究如何在电影研究中交叉影响和质疑理论讨论的众多例子之一。这本书专注于两个不同网络之间的动态相互关系,第一个是商业网络,当电影在本地和全球市场上编写剧本,制作和发行时,第二个是档案网络,当电影在非商业环境中传播时,如电视广播,节日和档案放映。因此,奥尔森并没有在黄金时代结束时就此打住;他还像一个法医侦探一样,一丝不落地追踪历史的痕迹,直到今天,看看经典是如何形成的,黄金时代的概念是如何构建的,以及这些老电影是如何成为新档案网络的一部分的。通过关注公司战略和财务问题以及风格的变化,奥尔森向我们展示了20世纪10年代瑞典早期电影制作的丰富而详细的画面,这一时期导致了黄金时代。《瑞典传》是一部历史概览和历史侦探小说。奥尔森更注重风格而不是内容,有时在阅读这本书的时候,我渴望讨论像《英格博格·霍尔姆》、《温嘉恩》和《巴莱特·普里玛多南》(Balettprimadonnan,导演)这样的电影的内容。斯蒂勒(1916)),以及这些电影如何与当代瑞典社会产生共鸣,但奥尔森为我们提供了丰富的新信息,以及比早期瑞典电影更广泛的视角。如果你想了解20世纪10年代瑞典的电影制作,以及这些电影是如何在档案和历史中流传下来的,奥尔森的书是一个完美的开始。1920年,记者、编剧、电影导演卡尔·西奥多·德雷尔(Carl Theodor Dreyer)在报纸上写了一篇关于瑞典电影的文章(《Svensk film》,Dagbladet, 1月7日7日)。和他同时代的许多人一样,德雷尔认为维克多Sjöström和莫里茨·斯提勒等瑞典导演给了电影一个灵魂。但德雷尔认为,正是这位瑞典导演对“美国”风格元素的挪用,比如特写镜头,创造了这个新的灵魂。德雷尔写道,这个特写镜头迫使演员放弃了滑稽的戏剧动作:“做鬼脸的日子结束了。电影已经找到了表现人类的方式。”简·奥尔森(Jan Olsson)的这本书就是关于电影中这种“人类表现”的道路。
本文章由计算机程序翻译,如有差异,请以英文原文为准。
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来源期刊
SCANDINAVIAN STUDIES
SCANDINAVIAN STUDIES HUMANITIES, MULTIDISCIPLINARY-
CiteScore
0.30
自引率
25.00%
发文量
20
期刊介绍: Thank you for visiting the internet homepages of the Department of Scandinavian Studies at the University of Washington. The Department of Scandinavian Studies was founded in 1909 by a special act of the Washington State Legislature. In the 99 years of its existence, the Department has grown from a one-person program to a comprehensive Scandinavian Studies department with a faculty fully engaged in leading-edge scholarship, award-winning teaching and dedicated university and community service.
期刊最新文献
Kirsi Salonen and Kurt Villads Jensen.Scandinavia in the Middle Ages 900–1550: Between Two Oceans. Abingdon: Routledge, 2023. Pp. xiii + 319. Adelns historia i Finland.Edited by Janne Haikari, Marko Hakanen, Anu Lahtinen, and Alex Snellman. Helsinki: Svenska Litteratursällskapet i Finland, 2023. Pp. 443. Sovereignty, Exploration, and Anglo-Danish Relations Climate Change and Denial in Brit Bildøen’sSju dagar i august Tim van Gerven.Scandinavism: Overlapping and Competing Identities in the Nordic World, 1770–1919. Leiden: Brill, 2022. Pp. xii + 388.
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