Does socioeconomic and environmental burden affect vulnerability to extreme air pollution and heat? A case-crossover study of mortality in California.

Abstract

Background: Extreme heat and air pollution is associated with increased mortality. Recent evidence suggests the combined effects of both is greater than the effects of each individual exposure. Low neighborhood socioeconomic status ("socioeconomic burden") has also been associated with increased exposure and vulnerability to both heat and air pollution. We investigated if neighborhood socioeconomic burden or the combination of socioeconomic and environmental exposures ("socioenvironmental burden") modified the effect of combined exposure to extreme heat and particulate air pollution on mortality in California.

Methods: We used a time-stratified case-crossover design to assess the impact of daily exposure to extreme particulate matter <2.5 μm (PM_2.5) and heat on cardiovascular, respiratory, and all-cause mortality in California 2014-2019. Daily average PM_2.5 and maximum temperatures based on decedent's residential census tract were dichotomized as extreme or not. Census tract-level socioenvironmental and socioeconomic burden was assessed with the CalEnviroScreen (CES) score and a social deprivation index (SDI), and individual educational attainment was derived from death certificates. Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate associations of heat and PM_2.5 with mortality with a product term used to evaluate effect measure modification.

Results: During the study period 1,514,292 all-cause deaths could be assigned residential exposures. Extreme heat and air pollution alone and combined were associated with increased mortality, matching prior reports. Decedents in census tracts with higher socioenvironmental and socioeconomic burden experienced more days with extreme PM_2.5 exposure. However, we found no consistent effect measure modification by CES or SDI on combined or separate extreme heat and PM_2.5 exposure on odds of total, cardiovascular or respiratory mortality. No effect measure modification was observed for individual education attainment.

Conclusion: We did not find evidence that neighborhood socioenvironmental- or socioeconomic burden significantly influenced the individual or combined impact of extreme exposures to heat and PM_2.5 on mortality in California.

Impact: We investigated the effect measure modification by socioeconomic and socioenvironmental of the co-occurrence of heat and PM_2.5, which adds support to the limited previous literature on effect measure modification by socioeconomic and socioenvironmental burden of heat alone and PM_2.5 alone. We found no consistent effect measure modification by neighborhood socioenvironmental and socioeconomic burden or individual level SES of the mortality association with extreme heat and PM_2.5 co-exposure. However, we did find increased number of days with extreme PM_2.5 exposure in neighborhoods with high socioenvironmental and socioeconomic burden. We evaluated multiple area-level and an individual-level SES and socioenvironmental burden metrics, each estimating socioenvironmental factors differently, making our conclusion more robust.