Structural and chemical analysis of hard carbon negative electrode for Na-ion battery with X-ray Raman scattering and solid-state NMR spectroscopy

Abstract

This study explores the structural changes of hard carbon (HC) negative electrodes in sodium-ion batteries induced by insertion of Na ions during sodiation. X-ray Raman spectroscopy (XRS) was used to record both C and Na K-edge absorption spectra from bulk HC anodes carbonized at different temperatures and at several points during sodiation and desodiation. Comparing the ${\pi }^{\ast }$/${\sigma }^{\ast }$ regions in the C K-edge spectra ${\mathrm{sp}}^2$/${\mathrm{sp}}^3$ hybridization ratio of material was determined. Higher carbonization temperatures led to increased order in graphitic structure and shorter

bond lengths. Sodiation caused a decrease in graphitic layer order due to inserted Na ions. Complementary operando solid state ${}^{23}\mathrm{Na}$ nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) studies confirmed the structural changes, while showing pore filling mechanism, which is not observed in ex situ measurements, primarily at higher carbonization temperatures. XRS analysis of Na K-edge spectra revealed systematic variations in the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) composition during cycling. Changes in XRS spectra were attributed to both SEI composition alterations, accompanied by the insertion/adsorption of Na ions at defect sites within the carbon structure.