Review of Cherenkov imaging technology advances in radiotherapy: single-photon-level imaging in high ambient light and radiation backgrounds

Abstract

. ABSTRACT. Significance: Single-photon-level imaging has been utilized for decades in closed dark environments; however, the utility for macroscopic imaging is more limited because it involves time-gating, filtering, and processing to view signals of interest. In radiation therapy delivery, a low-level signal called Cherenkov emission occurs from patients ’ bodies, which is imaged with single-photon level sensitivity, mapping radiation dose deposition in tissue. Several key technological advances have been leveraged to make this extremely low-light signal overcome high background and noise in clinical settings. Aim: Our review summarizes specific technological advances that have led to a single-photon imaging in high radiation noise and high optical background environments possible. Our work discusses applications and future opportunities. Approach: Physical fundamentals of Cherenkov light, ambient room light, optical filtering, time-gating, and image processing are reviewed with key technological camera choices. This is followed by discussion of image quality, noise, and post-processing, with current and future applications. Results: Invention and optimization of time-gating techniques and cameras with a single-photon capability were required to achieve real-time Cherenkov imaging. Requirements of video frame rate ( ≈ 10 to 30 fps), fast triggering ( ≈ μ s),