Biodegradable fluorescent protein chromophore nanoparticles for hypoxic two-photon photodynamic therapy†

Abstract

In this paper, biodegradable red fluorescent protein (RFP) chromophore analogue DPFP-SS-FA nanoparticles were synthesized for hypoxic two-photon photodynamic therapy. The maximum emission wavelength of DPFP-SS-FA is in the red-to-near-infrared region at 674 nm. Interestingly, these DPFP-SS-FA nanoparticles remain stable under physiological conditions, but deplete glutathione and disintegrate into the RFP chromophore analogue monomer in the tumor microenvironment. Meanwhile, electron paramagnetic resonance data have shown that DPFP-SS-FA produced enhanced ¹O₂/O₂˙⁻ signals after glutathione depletion causing an enhanced PDT effect. DPFP-SS-FA has negligible cell dark toxicity and high phototoxicity in hypoxic environments, indicating the outstanding hypoxia-overcoming ability of DPFP-SS-FA. In addition, due to its folic acid receptor and lysosome dual-targeting ability, DPFP-SS-FA is highly enriched in A-549 tumor cells. In particular, the hypoxic two-photon photodynamic therapy mediated by DPFP-SS-FA nanoparticles was validated in a zebrafish tumor model. Under 800 nm two-photon excitation, DPFP-SS-FA enabled bright two-photon fluorescence imaging and significantly inhibited the growth of tumor cells in zebrafish. The biodegradable DPFP-SS-FA nanoparticles reasonably constructed in this study can serve as excellent candidates for efficient hypoxic two-photon photosensitizers to treat deep tumor tissues.