Smartphone pupillometry with machine learning differentiates ischemic from hemorrhagic stroke: A pilot study

Abstract

Objectives

Similarities between acute ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke make diagnosis and triage challenging. We studied a smartphone-based quantitative pupillometer for differentiation of acute ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke.

Materials and methods

Stroke patients were recruited prior to surgical or interventional treatment. Smartphone pupillometry was used to quantify components of the pupillary light reflex (PLR). A synthetic minority oversampling technique (SMOTE) was applied to correct sample size imbalance. Four binary classification model types were trained using all possible combinations of the PLR components with 10-fold cross validation stratified by cohort. Models were evaluated for accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, area under the curve (AUC), and F1 score. The three best-performing models were selected based on AUC. Shapley additive explanation plots were produced to explain PLR parameter impacts on model predictions.

Results

Eleven subjects with intraparenchymal hemorrhage and 22 subjects with acute ischemic stroke were enrolled. One way ANOVA demonstrated significant differences between healthy control data, AIS, and IPH in five out of seven PLR parameters. After SMOTE, each class had n=22 PLR recordings for model training. The best-performing model was random forest using a combination of latency, mean and maximum constriction velocity, and mean dilation velocity to discriminate between stroke types with 91.5% (95% confidence interval: 84.1-98.9) accuracy, 90% (82.9-97.1) sensitivity, 93.3% (83-100) specificity, 0.917 (0.847-0.987) AUC, and 90.7% (84.1-97.3) F1 score.

Conclusions

Smartphone-based quantitative pupillometry could be useful in differentiating between acute ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke.