Unpacking heterogeneity: Executive function and reading development in U.S. multilingual children from kindergarten to third grade

Abstract

This study investigated the heterogeneity in English reading developmental trajectories among U.S. multilingual learners (MLs; N = 2896) from kindergarten through third grade, focusing on how early executive functions (EFs) contribute to variations in reading trajectories. Using a nationally representative sample and person-centered approach, this study identified four distinct reading growth profiles, revealing the heterogeneous nature of MLs' reading development and highlighting varied pathways within this population. Findings indicate that working memory emerged as the strongest predictor of membership in higher reading proficiency trajectories, supporting both immediate and sustained gains, while inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility uniquely contributed to distinguishing higher- from lower-performing profiles. The findings suggest that understanding the diverse cognitive and linguistic needs of MLs is essential for supporting their reading development. This study underscores the importance of incorporating EF-focused approaches into early literacy instruction and offers insights into instructional practices in increasingly diverse classrooms.