Outcomes of Lion, Panthera leo, Translocations to Reduce Conflict with Farmers in Botswana

Abstract

INTRODUCTION Lions, Panthera leo, in sub-Saharan Africa have decreased significantly in both number and distribution during the past two decades (Bauer, Packer, Funston, Henschel & Nowell, 2016). Reasons for this include declines in wild prey species, habitat destruction, and increased conflict with farmers, especially along the borders of conservation areas (Nowell & Bauer, 2006; Karanth & Chellam, 2009; Bauer et al., 2016). Farmers often harbour negative attitudes towards carnivores (Fraser-Celin, Hovorka, Hovorka & Maude, 2017) and lions pose a potential threat to human safety and livelihoods (Mbaiwa & Stronza, 2010; Linnell, Odden & Mertens, 2012). As a result, livestock farmers frequently kill carnivores, even in the absence of direct losses (Marker, Muntifering, Dickman, Mills & Macdonald, 2003; Ripple et al., 2014; Loveridge et al., 2016). In an effort to reduce human wildlife conflict, the translocation of large carnivores that kill livestock commonly occurs, but the effectiveness of this practice remains debatable (Massei, Quy, Gurney & Cowan, 2010; Fontúrbel & Simonetti, 2011). In Africa, some information exists on the fate of large carnivores following translocation (Marnewick, Hayward, Cilliers & Sommers, 2009; Johnson et al., 2010; Weilenmann, Gusset, Mills, Gabanapelo & Schiess-Meier, 2010); however, there are very little data available on lions. One study in northern Namibia showed that lions viewed as occasional livestock-raiders were translocated with some success, whereas there was less success with lions viewed as habitual stock raiders (Stander, 1990). A study in northern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) was largely inconclusive, but did have evidence that of eight livestock-raiding lions translocated, two settled into the release area for at least eight months (Van der Meulen, 1977). There was also some success in translocating 16 lions into the In the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HiP), from Pilanesberg National Park and the Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa (Trinkel et al., 2008). However, these lions were not livestock-raiders and were moved into the HiP to restore the genetic variation of the inbred lion population and HIP is also a small (900 km) and enclosed park. In Botswana, communities often complain that lions around their settlements cause livestock losses (Gusset, Swarner, Mponwane, Keletile & McNutt, 2009; Valeix, Hemson, Loveridge, Mills & Macdonald, 2012; Weise et al., 2018, Weise et al., 2019). When feasible, the Botswana Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) translocates lions known to kill livestock from farmlands into protected areas. In order to study the outcome of this management strategy a number of lions released into the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR) and Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) were fitted with satellite collars. In this paper, we analyse the data collected from the collars to find out how the translocated lions moved, what their survival rates were, and, where relevant and possible, their cause of death.