Branching Out: Factors Motivating Nondemocratic Use of Commodity Spyware

Abstract

Abstract Utilizing a conceptual framework of branching in—the ability of the state to utilize internal assets and mechanisms—and branching out—the solicitation of external services—this article introduces several criteria that states must fulfill in order to branch in, namely infrastructure control, offensive cyber capability, and sufficient resources. Subsequently, failure to meet one or more of these criteria forces a branch out toward commodity spyware. Nuances in this argument and the inherent features of commodity spyware also highlight the use of such services even by “branch-in capable” states. The findings within this article offer a broad overview of the factors predilecting state use of commodity spyware, with general applications for both nondemocratic and democratic states.