Jellyfish Antivenoms: Past, Present, and Future

Abstract

If snake antivenoms are considered orphan drugs, then jellyfish antivenoms are the poorest of the orphans. Despite the diversity, ubiquity and toxicity of the venomous cnidarians, only a single antivenom is available for jellyfish stings worldwide. That antivenom, an ovine whole IgG product, is directed against the ‘box’ jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri, and is manufactured by CSL Limited (Melbourne, Australia). It also neutralises the venom of closely related cubozoans such as Chiropsalmus quadrigatus. The recognition of the life‐threatening effects of various other jellyfish demonstrates the need for broadening the specificity of the existing product and/or developing additional specific jellyfish antivenoms. These emerging threats include the irukandji syndrome, due to Carukia barnesi and other carybdeids, as well as those from scyphozoans such as Stomolophus spp. The role of ancillary drug therapy, in addition to, or instead of, antivenoms remains controversial. This review will consider the development of jellyfish antivenoms, their clinical utility and future developments in the field.