Additive manufacturing innovation for musculoskeletal tissue repair and regeneration: from bench to bedside.

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) or threedimensional (3D) printing is a technique that builds the 3D objects from a 3D digital model (either by a computer-aided design or by scanning the object) in a layer-by-layer fashion. There are seven categories of AM process as defined in the ISO/ASTM 52900:2021,1 based on their working principles. These include vat photopolymerization, powder bed fusion, material extrusion, binder jetting, directed energy deposition, material jetting, and sheet lamination.1 Over the past decades, AM technology has been exploited in many fields such as the medical, automotive, aerospace and industries.