The global spread of human monkeypox virus: Challenges and opportunities for prevention

Abstract

This review comprehensively analyses human monkeypox caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), including its origins, transmission, pathogenesis, immune responses, genetic variations, evolutionary changes, and potential therapeutic strategies. The MPXV belongs to the Poxviridae family and is responsible for the zoonotic viral disease known as human monkeypox (MPX). A multi-nation monkeypox epidemic was declared by the WHO in May 2022, with over 64 290 laboratory-confirmed cases recorded worldwide in several non-endemic countries. Symptoms of MPX include fever, headache, muscular aches, lymphadenopathy, and a recognizable rash that progresses into papules, vesicles, and pustules before finally scabbing over and healing. MPXV is endemic to sub-Saharan Africa, affecting wild animals and resulting in zoonotic epidemics. Delayed vaccination, commerce in exotic animals, international travel, and increased human sensitivity have contributed to the spread of MPXV to new locations. The smallpox vaccination may provide cross-protection against MPXV due to antigenic similarities. Basic health precautions should be followed, including frequent handwashing, nose and mouth covering when coughing, and avoiding ill individuals and overcrowded areas. Safe sexual practices are also recommended in countries reporting monkeypox transmission. Although vaccines are available, but they are limited. The review highlights the need for effective preventive and therapeutic strategies to manage human monkeypox.