Translating Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream’s Latin Rhetorical Schemes in the light of Vinay and Darbelnet’s Translation Theory

ion than its equivalent in the TL which, in turn, is consequently more precise: compare the more abstract “to land” with the more قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 241 concrete “atterrir” and “débarquer”. To put it more clearly, Munday (2016) sheds light on the technique as follows: Explicitation: Implicit information in the ST is rendered explicit in the TT. This may occur on the level of grammar (e.g. English ST the doctor explicated as masculine or feminine in a TL where indication of gender is essential), semantics (e.g. the explanation of a ST cultural item or event, such as US Thanksgiving or UK April Fool‟s joke), pragmatics (e.g. the opaque and culturally located US English idiom it‟s easy to be a Monday morning quarterback) or discourse. (p, 92). Generalization: (the opposite is particularization) In this technique, a “specific (or concrete) term is translated by a more general (or abstract) term”. For example, “the choice of translating „computer‟ by the more general „machine‟; or the necessity of having the single, and in contrastive terms more general, word „étranger‟ for the English „stranger, foreigner, alien‟”. Another example of generalization would be the “ST computer “into “TT machine”, and the “ST ecstatic” into the “TT happy” (Munday, 2016, p, 93). Particularisation (specification) In this translation technique, “the general (abstract) term is translated by a specific (concrete) term where “the translator should have knowledge beyond the text”. Faux amis (False friend) This term means “words of any two languages which, despite the same origin and similar form, have different meanings”. For example, the “Semantic: actual/real: actuel/reel”, the “Stylistic: (English to French) قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 242 populace: foule”, and “(French to English) populace: rabble”. In other words, false friend is “structurally similar term in SL and TL which deceives the user into thinking the meaning is the same, e.g., French librarie means not English library but bookstore” (Munday, 2016, p, 92). Loss (Entropy) (perte ou entropie) It is “the relation between the source language and the target language” where there is an “absence of message constituents in the target language” i.e., “there is loss (or entropy) when a part of the message cannot be conveyed because of a lack of structural, stylistic or metalinguistic means in the target language”. For example, “the translation of „haute couture‟ into English comes up against a lacuna” or loss, “which can be resolved either by borrowing or by compensation in the form of a paraphrase”. Lacuna It is “a special case of loss” where there is an “absence of an expression form in the target language for a concept in the source language”. For example, “in French, the absence of a single word for „shallow‟ (peu profond)”. Gain It is “a phenomenon which occurs when there is an explicitation”. For example, “there is a gain of information in the translation of „s‟étant cassé le bras‟ by „having broken his arm‟ because the relationship between the verb and the object is made more specific”. Compensation It is “the stylistic translation technique by which a nuance that cannot be put in the same place as in the original is put at another point of the قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 243 phrase” for the sake of “keeping the overall tone”. For example, “to compensate for the absence of gender in English” it may be preferable “to translate “mon amie” by “my friend” followed by the name “in order to “point to the fact that it is a woman, or otherwise specify the sex of the person referred to”. Similarly, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) argue: The technique of compensation operates at all levels and especially in the case of situational adjustments. ... Compensation can therefore be defined as the technique which maintains the tonality of the whole text by introducing, as a stylistic variant in another place of the text, the element which could not be rendered at the same place by the same means. This technique permits the conservation of the integrity of the text while leaving the translator complete freedom in producing the translation. .... In some way, all methods we are presenting in this book and which are not required by the rules of the TL system, contain an element of compensation. (p, 199: 202) Servitude (the opposite is constraint) Owing to its “nature”, a “situation of language” may produce a new “choice, form, or order of words”. For example, “the use of the subjunctive in French after „avant que‟”, and the use of the definite article in: „Il a le teint pâle‟ are a servitude which confirms the French preference for abstract expression”. In other words, “servitude refers to obligatory transpositions and modulations due to a difference between the two language systems” (Munday, 2016, p, 93). Thus, a translator قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 244 will normally have no choice but to provide certain combination of words and stylistic structures in a fixed order. Option (the opposite is servitude) It is “the process of choosing between several different structures with the same meaning”. For example, “French does not distinguish between “dès son réveil” and “dès qu‟il se réveillera”, while English is restricted to the second form”. Option refers to “non-obligatory changes that may be due to the translator‟s own style and preferences, or to a change in emphasis”. For example, “the decision to amplify or explicate a general term (e.g. this > this problem/ question/issue)” or “to change word order when translating between languages that permit flexibility, (e.g. English: my mother will phone at six o‟clock > Spanish: a las seis llamara mi madre” literally means „at six will phone my mother‟” (Munday, 2016, p, 94). To distinguish between the two terms; servitude and option, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) argue: Translators must therefore distinguish between the servitudes imposed upon writers and the options they have freely chosen. For the three levels on which we shall carry out our analysis, the lexicon, the syntactic structure and the message, the distinction between servitude and option is important. In the analysis of the SL, translators must pay particular attention to the options. In the TL, they must take account of the servitudes which limit their freedom of action and must also be able to choose from among the available options to express the nuances of the message. (p, 16) قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 245 Unit of Translation (UT) It is “the smallest segment of the utterance in which the cohesion of signs is such that they must not be translated separately. Units of translation permit the segmentation of a text to be carried out”. In other words, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) argue: The units of translation we postulate here are lexicological units within which lexical elements are grouped together to form a single element of thought. It would be more correct to say: the unit of translation is the predominant element of thought within such a segment of the utterance. There may be superposition of ideas within the same unit. (p, 21) 3.10Levels of translation Vinay and Darbelnet (1995, p, 27: 30) point out that their seven translation procedures are operating on three levels as follows: 1) The Lexicon: The repertoire of signs, or the lexicon, is examined by substituting units of translation within the syntactic framework of a comparable structure. 2) Syntactic Structure: Units of translation can also be arranged in the sequence of the syntactic structure of the utterance, so as to emphasize the idea of an ordered entity. At each stage of the flow of the utterance, the meaning of a unit of translation is dependent on particular markers, on variations in form (morphology) and on a certain order (syntax). 3) The Message: Each message is an individual entity. It arises from parole and it depends upon the structure of a language with its limits and servitudes. At the plane of the message, قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 246 speakers determine the point of view, expressed by the tone, the choice of register, the layout of paragraphs and the choice of connectors which punctuate their development. Metalinguistic information completely surrounds the message, since a message is the individual reflection of a situation, which can be explained neither by considerations of a lexical nor a syntactic nature because they originate from a higher level of reality, which is less accessible, yet essential, and which some linguisticians refer to as “context”. 3.11Analytical steps Vinay and Darbelnet (1995, p, 30: 31) list five analytical steps for the translator to follow in moving from ST to TT. These are as follows: 1) identify the units of translation; 2) examine the SL text; by evaluating the descriptive, affective, and intellectual content of the units of translation; 3) reconstitute the situation or the metalinguistic context which gave rise to the message; 4) weigh up and evaluate the stylistic effects. 5) produce and then revise the TT. Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) indicate that “several of these methods can be used within the same sentence, and that some translations come under a whole complex of methods so that it is difficult to distinguish them” (p, 40). Considerin