{"title":"从维奈和达贝尔内的翻译理论看莎士比亚《仲夏夜之梦》的拉丁修辞手法","authors":"عبدالناصر البغدادي","doi":"10.21608/jfafu.2023.206009.1898","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"ion than its equivalent in the TL which, in turn, is consequently more precise: compare the more abstract “to land” with the more قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 241 concrete “atterrir” and “débarquer”. To put it more clearly, Munday (2016) sheds light on the technique as follows: Explicitation: Implicit information in the ST is rendered explicit in the TT. This may occur on the level of grammar (e.g. English ST the doctor explicated as masculine or feminine in a TL where indication of gender is essential), semantics (e.g. the explanation of a ST cultural item or event, such as US Thanksgiving or UK April Fool‟s joke), pragmatics (e.g. the opaque and culturally located US English idiom it‟s easy to be a Monday morning quarterback) or discourse. (p, 92). Generalization: (the opposite is particularization) In this technique, a “specific (or concrete) term is translated by a more general (or abstract) term”. For example, “the choice of translating „computer‟ by the more general „machine‟; or the necessity of having the single, and in contrastive terms more general, word „étranger‟ for the English „stranger, foreigner, alien‟”. Another example of generalization would be the “ST computer “into “TT machine”, and the “ST ecstatic” into the “TT happy” (Munday, 2016, p, 93). Particularisation (specification) In this translation technique, “the general (abstract) term is translated by a specific (concrete) term where “the translator should have knowledge beyond the text”. Faux amis (False friend) This term means “words of any two languages which, despite the same origin and similar form, have different meanings”. For example, the “Semantic: actual/real: actuel/reel”, the “Stylistic: (English to French) قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 242 populace: foule”, and “(French to English) populace: rabble”. In other words, false friend is “structurally similar term in SL and TL which deceives the user into thinking the meaning is the same, e.g., French librarie means not English library but bookstore” (Munday, 2016, p, 92). Loss (Entropy) (perte ou entropie) It is “the relation between the source language and the target language” where there is an “absence of message constituents in the target language” i.e., “there is loss (or entropy) when a part of the message cannot be conveyed because of a lack of structural, stylistic or metalinguistic means in the target language”. For example, “the translation of „haute couture‟ into English comes up against a lacuna” or loss, “which can be resolved either by borrowing or by compensation in the form of a paraphrase”. Lacuna It is “a special case of loss” where there is an “absence of an expression form in the target language for a concept in the source language”. For example, “in French, the absence of a single word for „shallow‟ (peu profond)”. Gain It is “a phenomenon which occurs when there is an explicitation”. For example, “there is a gain of information in the translation of „s‟étant cassé le bras‟ by „having broken his arm‟ because the relationship between the verb and the object is made more specific”. Compensation It is “the stylistic translation technique by which a nuance that cannot be put in the same place as in the original is put at another point of the قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 243 phrase” for the sake of “keeping the overall tone”. For example, “to compensate for the absence of gender in English” it may be preferable “to translate “mon amie” by “my friend” followed by the name “in order to “point to the fact that it is a woman, or otherwise specify the sex of the person referred to”. Similarly, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) argue: The technique of compensation operates at all levels and especially in the case of situational adjustments. ... Compensation can therefore be defined as the technique which maintains the tonality of the whole text by introducing, as a stylistic variant in another place of the text, the element which could not be rendered at the same place by the same means. This technique permits the conservation of the integrity of the text while leaving the translator complete freedom in producing the translation. .... In some way, all methods we are presenting in this book and which are not required by the rules of the TL system, contain an element of compensation. (p, 199: 202) Servitude (the opposite is constraint) Owing to its “nature”, a “situation of language” may produce a new “choice, form, or order of words”. For example, “the use of the subjunctive in French after „avant que‟”, and the use of the definite article in: „Il a le teint pâle‟ are a servitude which confirms the French preference for abstract expression”. In other words, “servitude refers to obligatory transpositions and modulations due to a difference between the two language systems” (Munday, 2016, p, 93). Thus, a translator قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 244 will normally have no choice but to provide certain combination of words and stylistic structures in a fixed order. Option (the opposite is servitude) It is “the process of choosing between several different structures with the same meaning”. For example, “French does not distinguish between “dès son réveil” and “dès qu‟il se réveillera”, while English is restricted to the second form”. Option refers to “non-obligatory changes that may be due to the translator‟s own style and preferences, or to a change in emphasis”. For example, “the decision to amplify or explicate a general term (e.g. this > this problem/ question/issue)” or “to change word order when translating between languages that permit flexibility, (e.g. English: my mother will phone at six o‟clock > Spanish: a las seis llamara mi madre” literally means „at six will phone my mother‟” (Munday, 2016, p, 94). To distinguish between the two terms; servitude and option, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) argue: Translators must therefore distinguish between the servitudes imposed upon writers and the options they have freely chosen. For the three levels on which we shall carry out our analysis, the lexicon, the syntactic structure and the message, the distinction between servitude and option is important. In the analysis of the SL, translators must pay particular attention to the options. In the TL, they must take account of the servitudes which limit their freedom of action and must also be able to choose from among the available options to express the nuances of the message. (p, 16) قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 245 Unit of Translation (UT) It is “the smallest segment of the utterance in which the cohesion of signs is such that they must not be translated separately. Units of translation permit the segmentation of a text to be carried out”. In other words, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) argue: The units of translation we postulate here are lexicological units within which lexical elements are grouped together to form a single element of thought. It would be more correct to say: the unit of translation is the predominant element of thought within such a segment of the utterance. There may be superposition of ideas within the same unit. (p, 21) 3.10Levels of translation Vinay and Darbelnet (1995, p, 27: 30) point out that their seven translation procedures are operating on three levels as follows: 1) The Lexicon: The repertoire of signs, or the lexicon, is examined by substituting units of translation within the syntactic framework of a comparable structure. 2) Syntactic Structure: Units of translation can also be arranged in the sequence of the syntactic structure of the utterance, so as to emphasize the idea of an ordered entity. At each stage of the flow of the utterance, the meaning of a unit of translation is dependent on particular markers, on variations in form (morphology) and on a certain order (syntax). 3) The Message: Each message is an individual entity. It arises from parole and it depends upon the structure of a language with its limits and servitudes. At the plane of the message, قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 246 speakers determine the point of view, expressed by the tone, the choice of register, the layout of paragraphs and the choice of connectors which punctuate their development. Metalinguistic information completely surrounds the message, since a message is the individual reflection of a situation, which can be explained neither by considerations of a lexical nor a syntactic nature because they originate from a higher level of reality, which is less accessible, yet essential, and which some linguisticians refer to as “context”. 3.11Analytical steps Vinay and Darbelnet (1995, p, 30: 31) list five analytical steps for the translator to follow in moving from ST to TT. These are as follows: 1) identify the units of translation; 2) examine the SL text; by evaluating the descriptive, affective, and intellectual content of the units of translation; 3) reconstitute the situation or the metalinguistic context which gave rise to the message; 4) weigh up and evaluate the stylistic effects. 5) produce and then revise the TT. Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) indicate that “several of these methods can be used within the same sentence, and that some translations come under a whole complex of methods so that it is difficult to distinguish them” (p, 40). Considerin","PeriodicalId":125342,"journal":{"name":"مجلة کلية الآداب جامعة الفيوم","volume":"35 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0000,"publicationDate":"2023-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"0","resultStr":"{\"title\":\"Translating Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream’s Latin Rhetorical Schemes in the light of Vinay and Darbelnet’s Translation Theory\",\"authors\":\"عبدالناصر البغدادي\",\"doi\":\"10.21608/jfafu.2023.206009.1898\",\"DOIUrl\":null,\"url\":null,\"abstract\":\"ion than its equivalent in the TL which, in turn, is consequently more precise: compare the more abstract “to land” with the more قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 241 concrete “atterrir” and “débarquer”. To put it more clearly, Munday (2016) sheds light on the technique as follows: Explicitation: Implicit information in the ST is rendered explicit in the TT. This may occur on the level of grammar (e.g. English ST the doctor explicated as masculine or feminine in a TL where indication of gender is essential), semantics (e.g. the explanation of a ST cultural item or event, such as US Thanksgiving or UK April Fool‟s joke), pragmatics (e.g. the opaque and culturally located US English idiom it‟s easy to be a Monday morning quarterback) or discourse. (p, 92). Generalization: (the opposite is particularization) In this technique, a “specific (or concrete) term is translated by a more general (or abstract) term”. For example, “the choice of translating „computer‟ by the more general „machine‟; or the necessity of having the single, and in contrastive terms more general, word „étranger‟ for the English „stranger, foreigner, alien‟”. Another example of generalization would be the “ST computer “into “TT machine”, and the “ST ecstatic” into the “TT happy” (Munday, 2016, p, 93). Particularisation (specification) In this translation technique, “the general (abstract) term is translated by a specific (concrete) term where “the translator should have knowledge beyond the text”. Faux amis (False friend) This term means “words of any two languages which, despite the same origin and similar form, have different meanings”. For example, the “Semantic: actual/real: actuel/reel”, the “Stylistic: (English to French) قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 242 populace: foule”, and “(French to English) populace: rabble”. In other words, false friend is “structurally similar term in SL and TL which deceives the user into thinking the meaning is the same, e.g., French librarie means not English library but bookstore” (Munday, 2016, p, 92). Loss (Entropy) (perte ou entropie) It is “the relation between the source language and the target language” where there is an “absence of message constituents in the target language” i.e., “there is loss (or entropy) when a part of the message cannot be conveyed because of a lack of structural, stylistic or metalinguistic means in the target language”. For example, “the translation of „haute couture‟ into English comes up against a lacuna” or loss, “which can be resolved either by borrowing or by compensation in the form of a paraphrase”. Lacuna It is “a special case of loss” where there is an “absence of an expression form in the target language for a concept in the source language”. For example, “in French, the absence of a single word for „shallow‟ (peu profond)”. Gain It is “a phenomenon which occurs when there is an explicitation”. For example, “there is a gain of information in the translation of „s‟étant cassé le bras‟ by „having broken his arm‟ because the relationship between the verb and the object is made more specific”. Compensation It is “the stylistic translation technique by which a nuance that cannot be put in the same place as in the original is put at another point of the قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 243 phrase” for the sake of “keeping the overall tone”. For example, “to compensate for the absence of gender in English” it may be preferable “to translate “mon amie” by “my friend” followed by the name “in order to “point to the fact that it is a woman, or otherwise specify the sex of the person referred to”. Similarly, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) argue: The technique of compensation operates at all levels and especially in the case of situational adjustments. ... Compensation can therefore be defined as the technique which maintains the tonality of the whole text by introducing, as a stylistic variant in another place of the text, the element which could not be rendered at the same place by the same means. This technique permits the conservation of the integrity of the text while leaving the translator complete freedom in producing the translation. .... In some way, all methods we are presenting in this book and which are not required by the rules of the TL system, contain an element of compensation. (p, 199: 202) Servitude (the opposite is constraint) Owing to its “nature”, a “situation of language” may produce a new “choice, form, or order of words”. For example, “the use of the subjunctive in French after „avant que‟”, and the use of the definite article in: „Il a le teint pâle‟ are a servitude which confirms the French preference for abstract expression”. In other words, “servitude refers to obligatory transpositions and modulations due to a difference between the two language systems” (Munday, 2016, p, 93). Thus, a translator قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 244 will normally have no choice but to provide certain combination of words and stylistic structures in a fixed order. Option (the opposite is servitude) It is “the process of choosing between several different structures with the same meaning”. For example, “French does not distinguish between “dès son réveil” and “dès qu‟il se réveillera”, while English is restricted to the second form”. Option refers to “non-obligatory changes that may be due to the translator‟s own style and preferences, or to a change in emphasis”. For example, “the decision to amplify or explicate a general term (e.g. this > this problem/ question/issue)” or “to change word order when translating between languages that permit flexibility, (e.g. English: my mother will phone at six o‟clock > Spanish: a las seis llamara mi madre” literally means „at six will phone my mother‟” (Munday, 2016, p, 94). To distinguish between the two terms; servitude and option, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) argue: Translators must therefore distinguish between the servitudes imposed upon writers and the options they have freely chosen. For the three levels on which we shall carry out our analysis, the lexicon, the syntactic structure and the message, the distinction between servitude and option is important. In the analysis of the SL, translators must pay particular attention to the options. In the TL, they must take account of the servitudes which limit their freedom of action and must also be able to choose from among the available options to express the nuances of the message. (p, 16) قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 245 Unit of Translation (UT) It is “the smallest segment of the utterance in which the cohesion of signs is such that they must not be translated separately. Units of translation permit the segmentation of a text to be carried out”. In other words, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) argue: The units of translation we postulate here are lexicological units within which lexical elements are grouped together to form a single element of thought. It would be more correct to say: the unit of translation is the predominant element of thought within such a segment of the utterance. There may be superposition of ideas within the same unit. (p, 21) 3.10Levels of translation Vinay and Darbelnet (1995, p, 27: 30) point out that their seven translation procedures are operating on three levels as follows: 1) The Lexicon: The repertoire of signs, or the lexicon, is examined by substituting units of translation within the syntactic framework of a comparable structure. 2) Syntactic Structure: Units of translation can also be arranged in the sequence of the syntactic structure of the utterance, so as to emphasize the idea of an ordered entity. At each stage of the flow of the utterance, the meaning of a unit of translation is dependent on particular markers, on variations in form (morphology) and on a certain order (syntax). 3) The Message: Each message is an individual entity. It arises from parole and it depends upon the structure of a language with its limits and servitudes. At the plane of the message, قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 246 speakers determine the point of view, expressed by the tone, the choice of register, the layout of paragraphs and the choice of connectors which punctuate their development. Metalinguistic information completely surrounds the message, since a message is the individual reflection of a situation, which can be explained neither by considerations of a lexical nor a syntactic nature because they originate from a higher level of reality, which is less accessible, yet essential, and which some linguisticians refer to as “context”. 3.11Analytical steps Vinay and Darbelnet (1995, p, 30: 31) list five analytical steps for the translator to follow in moving from ST to TT. These are as follows: 1) identify the units of translation; 2) examine the SL text; by evaluating the descriptive, affective, and intellectual content of the units of translation; 3) reconstitute the situation or the metalinguistic context which gave rise to the message; 4) weigh up and evaluate the stylistic effects. 5) produce and then revise the TT. Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) indicate that “several of these methods can be used within the same sentence, and that some translations come under a whole complex of methods so that it is difficult to distinguish them” (p, 40). 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引用次数: 0
摘要
例如,“法语在“avant que”之后使用虚拟语气”,以及“Il a le teint p<e:1> le”中使用定冠词都是一种奴役,证实了法语对抽象表达的偏好”。换句话说,“奴役是指由于两种语言系统之间的差异而必须进行的换位和调制”(Munday, 2016, p, 93)。因此,译者قملاتافاقثلاوتايوغللا(مويفلاةعماجبادلآاةيلكةلجمجم)ةنرا51ع،2)ويلوي(2222(翻译莎士比亚的仲夏…)博士。Abdelnasser Albogdady 244通常别无选择,只能按照固定的顺序提供一定的单词组合和风格结构。选项(与奴役相对)它是“在几个具有相同含义的不同结构之间进行选择的过程”。例如,“法语不区分“d<s:1> s son r”和“d<s:1> s qu”il se r”,而英语则仅限于第二种形式”。选择性翻译指的是“可能由于译者自己的风格和偏好,或者由于重点的变化而导致的非强制性的修改”。例如,“决定扩大或解释一个一般术语(例如这个>这个问题/问题/问题)”或“在允许灵活性的语言之间进行翻译时改变词序,(例如英语:my mother will phone at six o”clock >西班牙语:a las seis llamara mi madre”字面意思是“在六点将打电话给我母亲””(星期一,2016年,第94页)。区分两个术语;因此,Vinay和Darbelnet(1995)认为:译者必须区分强加在作者身上的奴役和他们自由选择的选择。我们将从词汇、句法结构和信息三个层面进行分析,区分奴役和选择是很重要的。在分析第二语言时,译者必须特别注意选项。在TL中,他们必须考虑到限制他们行动自由的奴役,还必须能够从可用的选项中进行选择,以表达信息的细微差别。(p, 16)قملاتافاقثلاوتايوغللا(مويفلاةعماجبادلآاةيلكةلجمجم)ةنرا51ع،2)ويلوي(2222(翻译莎士比亚的仲夏…)博士。翻译单位(Unit of Translation, UT)它是“话语中最小的部分,在这个部分中,符号的衔接达到了不能单独翻译的程度。”翻译单元允许对文本进行分割”。换句话说,Vinay和Darbelnet(1995)认为:我们在这里假设的翻译单位是词汇学单位,在这些单位内,词汇元素被组合在一起,形成一个单一的思想元素。更正确的说法是:翻译的单位是在这样的话语片段中占主导地位的思想元素。在同一单位中可能有想法的重叠。(p . 21) 3.10翻译的层次Vinay和Darbelnet (1995, p . 27: 30)指出,他们的七种翻译程序是在以下三个层次上运行的:1)词汇库:符号库或词汇库是通过在一个可比结构的句法框架内替换翻译单位来检查的。2)句法结构:翻译单位也可以按照话语的句法结构顺序排列,以强调有序实体的思想。在话语流动的每个阶段,翻译单位的意义依赖于特定的标记,依赖于形式的变化(形态学)和一定的顺序(句法)。3)消息:每条消息都是一个单独的实体。它源于言语,取决于语言的结构及其局限性和奴役性。在飞机的消息,قملاتافاقثلاوتايوغللا(مويفلاةعماجبادلآاةيلكةلجمجم)ةنرا51ع،2)ويلوي(2222(翻译莎士比亚的仲夏…)博士。Abdelnasser Albogdady的246位讲话者通过语调、音域的选择、段落的布局和标点符号的选择来确定观点。元语言信息完全围绕着信息,因为信息是一种情况的个体反映,这既不能用词汇也不能用句法来解释,因为它们源于更高层次的现实,这是不太容易接近的,但却是必不可少的,一些语言学家称之为“语境”。3.11分析步骤Vinay和Darbelnet (1995, p . 30: 31)列出了译者从意式翻译到译式翻译的五个分析步骤。具体如下:1)确定翻译单位;2)检查SL文本;通过评价翻译单元的描述性、情感性和知识性内容;3)重构产生信息的情境或元语言语境;4)权衡和评价文体效果。5)制作并修改TT。
Translating Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream’s Latin Rhetorical Schemes in the light of Vinay and Darbelnet’s Translation Theory
ion than its equivalent in the TL which, in turn, is consequently more precise: compare the more abstract “to land” with the more قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 241 concrete “atterrir” and “débarquer”. To put it more clearly, Munday (2016) sheds light on the technique as follows: Explicitation: Implicit information in the ST is rendered explicit in the TT. This may occur on the level of grammar (e.g. English ST the doctor explicated as masculine or feminine in a TL where indication of gender is essential), semantics (e.g. the explanation of a ST cultural item or event, such as US Thanksgiving or UK April Fool‟s joke), pragmatics (e.g. the opaque and culturally located US English idiom it‟s easy to be a Monday morning quarterback) or discourse. (p, 92). Generalization: (the opposite is particularization) In this technique, a “specific (or concrete) term is translated by a more general (or abstract) term”. For example, “the choice of translating „computer‟ by the more general „machine‟; or the necessity of having the single, and in contrastive terms more general, word „étranger‟ for the English „stranger, foreigner, alien‟”. Another example of generalization would be the “ST computer “into “TT machine”, and the “ST ecstatic” into the “TT happy” (Munday, 2016, p, 93). Particularisation (specification) In this translation technique, “the general (abstract) term is translated by a specific (concrete) term where “the translator should have knowledge beyond the text”. Faux amis (False friend) This term means “words of any two languages which, despite the same origin and similar form, have different meanings”. For example, the “Semantic: actual/real: actuel/reel”, the “Stylistic: (English to French) قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 242 populace: foule”, and “(French to English) populace: rabble”. In other words, false friend is “structurally similar term in SL and TL which deceives the user into thinking the meaning is the same, e.g., French librarie means not English library but bookstore” (Munday, 2016, p, 92). Loss (Entropy) (perte ou entropie) It is “the relation between the source language and the target language” where there is an “absence of message constituents in the target language” i.e., “there is loss (or entropy) when a part of the message cannot be conveyed because of a lack of structural, stylistic or metalinguistic means in the target language”. For example, “the translation of „haute couture‟ into English comes up against a lacuna” or loss, “which can be resolved either by borrowing or by compensation in the form of a paraphrase”. Lacuna It is “a special case of loss” where there is an “absence of an expression form in the target language for a concept in the source language”. For example, “in French, the absence of a single word for „shallow‟ (peu profond)”. Gain It is “a phenomenon which occurs when there is an explicitation”. For example, “there is a gain of information in the translation of „s‟étant cassé le bras‟ by „having broken his arm‟ because the relationship between the verb and the object is made more specific”. Compensation It is “the stylistic translation technique by which a nuance that cannot be put in the same place as in the original is put at another point of the قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 243 phrase” for the sake of “keeping the overall tone”. For example, “to compensate for the absence of gender in English” it may be preferable “to translate “mon amie” by “my friend” followed by the name “in order to “point to the fact that it is a woman, or otherwise specify the sex of the person referred to”. Similarly, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) argue: The technique of compensation operates at all levels and especially in the case of situational adjustments. ... Compensation can therefore be defined as the technique which maintains the tonality of the whole text by introducing, as a stylistic variant in another place of the text, the element which could not be rendered at the same place by the same means. This technique permits the conservation of the integrity of the text while leaving the translator complete freedom in producing the translation. .... In some way, all methods we are presenting in this book and which are not required by the rules of the TL system, contain an element of compensation. (p, 199: 202) Servitude (the opposite is constraint) Owing to its “nature”, a “situation of language” may produce a new “choice, form, or order of words”. For example, “the use of the subjunctive in French after „avant que‟”, and the use of the definite article in: „Il a le teint pâle‟ are a servitude which confirms the French preference for abstract expression”. In other words, “servitude refers to obligatory transpositions and modulations due to a difference between the two language systems” (Munday, 2016, p, 93). Thus, a translator قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 244 will normally have no choice but to provide certain combination of words and stylistic structures in a fixed order. Option (the opposite is servitude) It is “the process of choosing between several different structures with the same meaning”. For example, “French does not distinguish between “dès son réveil” and “dès qu‟il se réveillera”, while English is restricted to the second form”. Option refers to “non-obligatory changes that may be due to the translator‟s own style and preferences, or to a change in emphasis”. For example, “the decision to amplify or explicate a general term (e.g. this > this problem/ question/issue)” or “to change word order when translating between languages that permit flexibility, (e.g. English: my mother will phone at six o‟clock > Spanish: a las seis llamara mi madre” literally means „at six will phone my mother‟” (Munday, 2016, p, 94). To distinguish between the two terms; servitude and option, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) argue: Translators must therefore distinguish between the servitudes imposed upon writers and the options they have freely chosen. For the three levels on which we shall carry out our analysis, the lexicon, the syntactic structure and the message, the distinction between servitude and option is important. In the analysis of the SL, translators must pay particular attention to the options. In the TL, they must take account of the servitudes which limit their freedom of action and must also be able to choose from among the available options to express the nuances of the message. (p, 16) قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 245 Unit of Translation (UT) It is “the smallest segment of the utterance in which the cohesion of signs is such that they must not be translated separately. Units of translation permit the segmentation of a text to be carried out”. In other words, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) argue: The units of translation we postulate here are lexicological units within which lexical elements are grouped together to form a single element of thought. It would be more correct to say: the unit of translation is the predominant element of thought within such a segment of the utterance. There may be superposition of ideas within the same unit. (p, 21) 3.10Levels of translation Vinay and Darbelnet (1995, p, 27: 30) point out that their seven translation procedures are operating on three levels as follows: 1) The Lexicon: The repertoire of signs, or the lexicon, is examined by substituting units of translation within the syntactic framework of a comparable structure. 2) Syntactic Structure: Units of translation can also be arranged in the sequence of the syntactic structure of the utterance, so as to emphasize the idea of an ordered entity. At each stage of the flow of the utterance, the meaning of a unit of translation is dependent on particular markers, on variations in form (morphology) and on a certain order (syntax). 3) The Message: Each message is an individual entity. It arises from parole and it depends upon the structure of a language with its limits and servitudes. At the plane of the message, قملا تافاقثلاو تايوغللا ( مويفلا ةعماج بادلآا ةيلك ةلجم جم )ةنرا 51 ع ، 2 )ويلوي( 2222 (Translating Shakespeare‟s Midsummer ...)Dr. Abdelnasser Albogdady 246 speakers determine the point of view, expressed by the tone, the choice of register, the layout of paragraphs and the choice of connectors which punctuate their development. Metalinguistic information completely surrounds the message, since a message is the individual reflection of a situation, which can be explained neither by considerations of a lexical nor a syntactic nature because they originate from a higher level of reality, which is less accessible, yet essential, and which some linguisticians refer to as “context”. 3.11Analytical steps Vinay and Darbelnet (1995, p, 30: 31) list five analytical steps for the translator to follow in moving from ST to TT. These are as follows: 1) identify the units of translation; 2) examine the SL text; by evaluating the descriptive, affective, and intellectual content of the units of translation; 3) reconstitute the situation or the metalinguistic context which gave rise to the message; 4) weigh up and evaluate the stylistic effects. 5) produce and then revise the TT. Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) indicate that “several of these methods can be used within the same sentence, and that some translations come under a whole complex of methods so that it is difficult to distinguish them” (p, 40). Considerin