The “look” and language of clash: Visual structuring of argument in the 1988 Bush‐Dukakis debates

This study examined the visual structuring of the 1988 debates between George Bush and Michael Dukakis, focusing on moments of clash where the advocates engaged in statements of attack and defense. Three conclusions are advanced: televised shot sequences employed to visualize clash in the debates (1) misrepresented the incidence of verbal clash, (2) gave preference to ad hominem attacks as a verbal cue for a cut to a reaction shot, and (3) offered opportunities for nonverbal refutation of opposing arguments. Visual messages in these “cuts” to reaction shots altered the verbal content of the speaking candidate. In short, what viewers saw was punctuated by changes in camera shots that transmuted the process of argument in the debate.