From peaceful coexistence to the War of all the People: Cuba and the Cold War in Central America and the Caribbean (1975-1983)

ABSTRACTBuilding on recent scholarly interest in Latin America’s Cold War, this paper breaks new ground in using a broad range of original documents from previously largely overlooked voices – the foreign ministries, parties, and security services agencies of Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, the Czech Republic, and Romania – in discussing Cuba’s Cold War involvement in Central America and the Caribbean from the First Congress of the Cuban Communist Party until the U.S. Grenada invasion. The candid reports provided by contemporary East European observers help us attain a more nuanced picture of Havana’s complex policy dilemmas as it sought to negotiate and navigate between its vast ambitions, limited abilities, Soviet bloc restraint, and the ever-present threat of a U.S. invasion. Finally, further in line with the latest advancements in the globalized Cold War historiography, in hearing the voices of Moscow’s junior partners, this article casts the events surrounding the tumultuous period in a broader Transatlantic setting beyond the shadows of the superpowers.KEYWORDS: CubaCentral AmericaCaribbeanCold WarSoviet bloc Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1. On Cold War in Africa, see, among others, Byrne (Citation2016), Mitchell (Citation2016), Mazov (Citation2010), Shubin (Citation2008). Some of the notable studies tracing the Cold War in Asia and the Middle East include Lüthi (Citation2020), Hasegawa (Citation2011), Hiro (Citation2018), Friedman (Citation2015), and Hershberg (Citation2012). Central America’s place in the global conflict was looked upon at by Moulton (Citation2015), Ferreira and Arriola (Citation2017), and LeoGrande (Citation1998), Moulton (Citation2015), among others.2. Some scholarly accounts offering novel interpretation of Latin America’s Cold War are Field et al. (Citation2020), Darnton (Citation2014), Mor (Citation2013), Garrard-Burnett, et al (Citation2013), Harmer (Citation2011), Brands (Citation2010), Joseph and Spenser (Citation2008).3. “Jednání ČSSR – Kuba dne 6. 4. 1973 od 18,15–19,20 hod.” (Meeting of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic – Cuba on April 6, 1973, 6:15–7:20 pm), April 11, 1973, NAČR, KSČ-ÚV 1945–1989, Praha – Gustáv Husák, k. 377, 7.4. Kolek “Vnitropolitický a hospodářský vývoj,” 5–6.5. Rabotnichesko Delo [Sofia], December 31, 1974, 4.6. “Materiały Informacyjne do wizyty i sekretarza KC PZPR towarzysza Edwarda Gierka na Kubie w dniach 10–16 stycznia 1975: Kuba a ruch państw niezaangażowanych” (Information materials for the visit and secretary of the Central Committee of PUWP, Comrade Edward Gierek to Cuba on 10–16 January 1975: Cuba and the movement of non-aligned states), December 1974, Materialy informacyjne MSZ, Zestaw Nr 1 (Information materials of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Set No 1), Archiwum Act Nowych (Central Archives of Modern Records, Warsaw), 1354 KC PZPR, Kancelaria i Sekretarzy KC PZPR, XIA/678, 35 [54].7. “Bericht über den offiziellen Besuch des Ministers für Auswärtige Angelegenheiten der DDR, Oskar Fischer, in der Republik Kuba vom 22.–26.9.1976” (Report on the official visit of the GDR Minister for Foreign Affairs, Oskar Fischer, to the Republic of Cuba September 22–26, 1976), PAAA, MfAA, ZR 1931/13, 2–3.8. “Bericht über den offiziellen Besuch,” 2–3.9. CIA Directorate of Intelligence, “Cuba: Training Third World Guerrillas,” December 1986 (CIA FOIA ERR), https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP88T00768R000400500001-7.pdf, iii (Accessed, September 17, 2021).10. Z. Szewczyk, “Konsultacje z MSZ ZSRR na temat Ameryki Łacińskiej” (Consultations with the USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs on Latin America), October 2, 1979, AMSZ, D III − 1979, 25/82, W-7, 2.11. Janiszewski, “Notatka Informacyjna dot. polityki administracji USA,” 2.12. “Styky Kuby s karibskou oblastí a Střední Amerikou” (Cuba’s relations with the Caribbean and Central America), undated, [c. 1980], AMZV, TO-T, 1980–89, Box “Kuba” No 2, 1.13. CIA Intelligence Assessment, “Cuba’s Evolving Relations With Latin America,” September 1984, CIA FOIA ERR, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP85S00317R000200110005-2.pdf, 5 (Accessed, September 9, 2021).14. Biniek and Milcarz, “Notatka nt. aktualnej sytuacji,” 5. See also “Styky Kuby s karibskou oblastí a Střední Amerikou,” 1.15. “Good Morning America on March 17, 1980 on WJLA TV: Jack Anderson,” CIA FOIA Electronic Reading Room, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP91-00561R000100060052-8.pdf (Accessed, September 9, 2021).16. M. Vojta [about the creation of Zone of Peace in the Caribbean], January 21, 1982, AMZV, TO-T, 1980–89, Box “Kuba” No 3, 1.17. V. Vrána and Z. Pagáč, “Kubánské stanovisko k úsilí o vyhlášení karibské oblasti na zónu míru” (Cuban position on efforts to declare the Caribbean a peace zone), February 10, 1982, AMZV, TO-T, 1980–89, Box “Kuba” No 4, 1–2.18. CIA, “Cuba: Training Third World Guerrillas,” 2.19. CIA, “Cuba: Training Third World Guerrillas,” 2.20. United States Department of State, “Cuba’s Renewed Support for Violence in Latin America,” December 14, 1981, United States Department of State Bureau of Public Affairs, Special Report No. 90, CIA FOIA ERR, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP85M00363R000501130007-9.pdf, 2 (Accessed, September 15, 2021).21. M. Spasov, “Spravka otnosno podgotovka za sklyuchvane na sporazumenie za sŭtrudnichestvo s Republika Kuba [September, 18–26]” (Information on the preparation for the conclusion of a cooperation agreement with the Republic of Cuba), c. October 1968, Dossier Commission, COMDOS, f. 9, op. 2, a.e. 865, 5–6 [18–19].22. Biniek and Milcarz, “Notatka nt. aktualnej sytuacji na Karaibach,” 2.23. Biniek and Milcarz, “Notatka nt. aktualnej sytuacji na Karaibach,” 7–8.24. In addition to the classical studies by Pastor (Citation1987) and Prevost (Citation1990), more recently accounts developed by Oñate-Madrazo (Citation2011), Storkmann (Citation2014), and van Ommen (Citation2021), Yordanov (Citation2020) explored the links between Sandinistas, Cuba, East Germany, other bloc states and Western Europe.25. A similar Czechoslovak assessment saw the FSLN’s victory as a “significant contribution to the development of the nation’s struggle for national liberation and independence not only to Central America but also to a rising level of revolutionary struggle in the Caribbean.” See V. Vrána, “Zpráva k nĕkterým otázkám vztahů Kubánské republiky k zemím Latinske Ameriky a k současné situaci na subkontinentĕ” (Report on some issues concerning the Republic of Cuba’s relations with Latin American countries and the current situation on the subcontinent), March 24, 1980, AMZV, TO-T, 1980–89, Box “Kuba” No 4, 4.26. For good overviews of the Sandinista takeover see (Gorman Citation1981) and Zimmermann (Citation2000).27. A. Havaši and Z. Pagáč, “Kubánský pohled na současnou situaci v národně osvobozeneckém hnuti v Střední Americe a karibské oblasti” (The Cuban view of the current situation in the national liberation movement in Central America and the Caribbean), June 18, 1981, AMZV, TO-T 1980–89, box “Kuba,” No 1, 4.28. United States Department of State, “Cuba’s Renewed Support for Violence in Latin America,” 4.29. Central Intelligence Agency, “Intelligence in Central America,” March 1984, CIA FOIA ERR, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP88B00443R000100620001-5.pdf, 2 (Accessed, September 13, 2021).30. “Soviet Policies and Activities in Latin America and the Caribbean,” June 1982, National Archives and Records Administration at College Park (hereafter NARA II), RG 263 (Records of the Central Intelligence Agency), A1 (29), Box 6, SNIE 11/80/90–82, 8.31. Memorandum of Conversation between Pedro García [MINREX] and Miloš Vojta [Czechoslovakia’s ambassador], November 20, 1980, AMZV, TO-T, 1980–89, Box “Kuba,” No 2, 2–3.32. Memorandum of conversation between Nicolae Ceaușescu and Viktor Kulikov, April 12, 1980, ANR (National Archives of Romania, Bucharest), CC al PCR, Secţia Relaţii Externe, Dosar Nr 52/1980, 21.33. “Dokladna zapiska otnosno provedeno v Berlin saveshtanie po vaprosa za okazvane na pomosht na organite na MVR na Republika Nikaragua” (Report on a meeting held in Berlin on the issue of assistance to the Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of Nicaragua), May 15, 1980, COMDOS, F. 9, op. 4, a. e. 145, 1 [22].34. [Memorandum of the meeting between representatives of Soviet KGB and the interior ministries of CSSR, PRB, Cuba, and the Ministry of Security of GDR], June 26, 1980, COMDOS, f. 9, op. 4, a. e. 702, 23 [27].35. [Memorandum of the meeting … interior ministries], 34 [38].36. “Zapiski otnosno mnogostrannoto saveshtanie na prestaviteli na organite za sigurnost na SSSR, ChSSR, NRB, Kuba i GDR – otnosno Nikaragua. (Berlin, 12 i 13 mai 1980 g.)” (Notes on the multilateral meeting of representatives of the security authorities of the USSR, ChSSR, NRB, Cuba and GDR – on Nicaragua. (Berlin, May 12–13, 1980)) May 15, 1980, COMDOS, f. 9, op. 4, a. e. 145, 57 [116].37. [Memorandum of the meeting … interior ministries], 27 [32].38. “Zapiski … organite za sigurnost,” 33–4 [92–3].39. “Nicaragua: Soviet Bloc and Radical Support for the Sandinista Regime,” March 1985, NARA II, RG 263, A1 (29), Box 24, SNIE 93-3-3-85, 3; 9.40. “Inside Communist Nicaragua: The Miguel Bolanos Transcripts,” Heritage Foundation, September 30, 1983, 8–9.41. Rönsch, [Second Secretary of the GDR Embassy, Prague], “Vermerk über ein Gespräch mit Genossen Kmet, Mitarbeiter in der 9. Territorialabteilung des cs. MfAA uber den Besuch des kubanischen Außenministers in der CSSR” (Note about a conversation with Comrade Kmet, employee in the 9th Territorial Department of the Czechoslovak Foreign Minister on the visit of the Cuban Foreign Minister to the CSSR), December 19, 1983, PAAA, MfAA, ZR 1054/87, 1. See also GDR’s Stasi assessment, according to which more than 5,000 Cuban nationals assisted Nicaragua in many areas by March 1984, including the military, see “Notiz zur Arbeitsbesprechung bei der Militärabwehr am 22. 3. 1984 und 23. 3. 1984 in Havanna” (Note on the working meeting at the military defense on March 22, 1984 and March 23, 1984 in Havana) March 23, 1984, BStU, MfS Abt. X, Nr. 317, 6 [146]. See also Granma, August 3, 1983, cited in Domínguez Reyes (Citation1985, 152).42. “Soviet Policies and Activities in Latin America and the Caribbean,” 8.43. Memorandum of conversation between Erich Mielke and Sergio del Valle, May 14, 1979, BStU, MfS, Abt. X, Nr 1876, 6 [6].44. Memorandum of conversations between Bulgarian and Nicaraguan delegations, Sofia, October 18–19, 1979, TsDA, Fond 1B, op. 60, a. e. 257, 19.45. “Inside Communist Nicaragua,” 8–9.46. Note from the MfS commissioner to Managua, May 2, 1980, BStU, MfS-Abt X. 1987, 4 [89].47. However, in late 1987, Cuba’s interior minister, José Abrahantes, provided a somewhat different version of Cuba’s influence in Nicaragua. Speaking with Stasi’s chief Erich Mielke, Abrahantes alleged that although the Cubans were in regular touch with the Sandinista administration and monitored internal events, the driving principle in the relations between the two states was that Havana accepted all of Managua’s choices. The Cubans backed their Nicaraguan counterparts, but they did not always agree on everything. They would provide advice whenever they could, but it was up to the Nicaraguans to determine what was best for them. Memorandum of conversation between Erich Mielke and Jose Abrahantes, November 26, 1987, BStU, MfS – Abt. X, Nr. 1936, 7 [13].48. “Niederschrift über die Konsultation des Staatssekretärs und 1. Stellvertreters des Ministers für Auswärtige Angelegenheiten, Genossen Herbert Krolikowski, mit Genossen des kubanischen Außenministeriums vom 18. bis 21. 2. 1980 in Havanna,” (Minutes of the consultation of the State Secretary and 1st Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs, Comrade Herbert Krolikowski, with comrades of the Cuban Foreign Ministry from February 18 to 21, 1980 in Havana) February 27, 1980, PAAA, MfAA, ZR 3723/82, 7.49. Memo for the DCI from the Acting National Intelligence Officer for Latin America “Warning Assessment: Latin America,” April 23, 1979, CIA FOIA ERR, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP83B01027R000300110040-2.pdf, 2 (Accessed, September 9, 2021); CIA “Grenada: Two Years After the Coup,” May 1981, CIA FOIA ERR, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP03T02547R000100170001-3.pdf, 6 (Accessed, September 9, 2021).50. Memo from Dimitŭr Stoyanov [Bulgarian Interior minister] to Velko Palin [BCP CC], May 20, 1981, TsDA, f. 1B, op. 64, a.e. 629, 1 [4].51. Decision 21B of the BCP CC Secretariat, 11 June 1981, TsDA, f. 1B, op. 64, a.e. 629, 1 [4].52. CIA, “The Soviet-Cuban Connection in Central America and the Caribbean,” February 27, 1985, CIA FOIA ERR, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP87M00539R001602440012-9.pdf, 7 (Accessed, September 13, 2021).53. Bernard Bourne [Minister-Counselor of the Embassy of Grenada in the Soviet Union], “Meeting of Soviet and Grenadian Military Chiefs of Staff” March 10, 1983, in The Grenada Papers, edited by Seabury, Paul and Walter A. McDougall (San Francisco, CA: Institute for Contemporary Studies, Citation1984), 190–191.54. CIA, “The Soviet-Cuban Connection in Central America and the Caribbean,” 6.55. CIA “Grenada: Two Years After the Coup,” 7.56. CIA, “The Soviet-Cuban,” 7–8.57. According to Castro, there were a little over 700 Cubans in Grenada, most of whom – over 550 – were construction workers. There was also a large group of doctors, some teachers, some agricultural technicians and around 40 military advisers (Lewis and Mathews Citation1984, 55).58. G. Yonov [Second Secretary of Bulgarian Embassy in Havana], “Kubino-Amerikanskite otnosheniya pri Reyganovata administratsiya” (Cuban-American relations under the Reagan Administration), November 25, 1983, DAMVnR, op. 38, d. 90, a.e. 1728, 9–10 [10–11].59. CIA, “Cuba’s Evolving Relations With Latin America,” 2.60. Rönsch, “Vermerk über ein Gespräch mit Genossen Kmet,” 2.61. “Notatka służbowa: dot. niektórych problemów Republiki Kuby” (Service note: on some problems of the Republic of Cuba), n.d. [c. June 1984], IPN, BU 2602/16999, 1 [182].62. “Notatka służbowa,” 1–2 [182–183].63. CIA, “Cuba’s Evolving Relations with Latin America,” 2.64. CIA Directorate for Intelligence, “Cuba: Focal Point for Political Violence in Latin America and the Caribbean,” May 9, 1986, CIA FOIA ERR, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90T00114R000800840001-8.pdf, 4 (Accessed, September 9, 2021).65. “Notatka służbowa,,” 2 [183].66. “Konzeption für die Entwicklung der Beziehungen der DDR zur Republik,” 4.67. “Doklad zamestitelya Predsedatelya Komiteta gosudarstvennoĭ bezopasnosti SSSR – nachal’nika Pervogo glavnogo upravleniya general-leĭtenanta tovarishcha V. A. Kryuchkova” (Report of the Deputy Chairman of the Soviet Union’s State Security Committee – the head of the First Chief Directorate, Lieutenant General Comrade Vladimir A. Kryuchkov), undated [c. May 1982], COMDOS, f. 9, op. 4a, a.e. 14, 18.68. M. Vojta and Z. Pagáč, “Vnitropolitická situace a zahraniční politika Kuby ve 2. pololetí 1981” (The domestic political situation and foreign policy of Cuba in the second half of 1981) December 24, 1981, AMZV, TO-T, 1980–89, Box “Kuba,” No. 4, 6.69. “Doklad zamestitelya nachal’nika III Glavnogo upravleniya Ministerstva vnutrennikh del Vengerekoy Narodnoy Respubliki – nachal’nika Upravleniya razvedki general-mayora tovarishcha Ya. Bode” (Report of the Deputy Head of the III Main Directorate [Belügyminisztérium III/I. Csoportfőnökség] of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Hungarian People’s Republic – head of the Intelligence Directorate General-Major Comrade János Bogye), May 1982, COMDOS, f. 9, op. 4a, a.e. 18, 7.70. Yonov, “Kubino-Amerikanskite otnosheniya,” 16 [17].71. “Notatka służbowa: dot. niektórych problemów Republiki Kuby,” 3 [184]. The so-called Mariel boatlift is the clearest example of the heightened in the 1980 immigration wave. Kami (Citation2018) offered a close examination surrounding these events, highlighting their influence on Cuban-U.S. relations in the period.72. Vrána, “Zpráva k nĕkterým otázkám vztahů Kubánské republiky,” 4.73. “Notatka służbowa,” 2 [183].