Seasonal and Interannual Variability of Fronts and Their Impact on Chlorophyll-a in the Indonesian Seas

The spatiotemporal variability of oceanic fronts in the Indonesian seas was investigated using high-resolution satellite observations. The study aimed to understand the underlying mechanism driving these fronts and their impact on chlorophyll-a variability. A high value of frontal probability was found near the coasts of major islands, exhibiting a distinct seasonal cycle with peaks occurrences during austral winter. The distribution variability of chlorophyll-a was generally consistent with the presence of active frontal zones, although a significantly positive relationship between fronts and chlorophyll-a was limited to only some specific areas, e.g., south Java Island and the Celebes Sea. Wind-driven upwelling played a major role in front generation in the Java upwelling region and enhanced frontal activity can promote the growth of phytoplankton, leading to higher chlorophyll-a. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that wind patterns preceded variations in front probability and chlorophyll-a by approximately two months. This lag suggests that the spatiotemporal variability of fronts and chlorophyll-a in this region is primarily influenced by the monsoon system. In addition, the sea surface temperature (SST) simultaneously modulated the chlorophyll-a variability. Negative SST anomalies were typically associated with positive anomalies in front probability the chlorophyll-a in most areas. Notably, the interannual variability of fronts and chlorophyll-a are prominent in the Java upwelling region. During El Niño years, this region experienced an enhanced monsoon, resulting in a negative SST anomaly alongside positive anomalies in front probability and chlorophyll-a. A comprehensive description and underlying dynamics of frontal activity in the Indonesian seas are provided by this study. The findings are helpful to delineate the variability in chlorophyll-a, thereby facilitating the future understanding of local primary production and the carbon cycle. As typical mesoscale processes, oceanic fronts have significant impacts on biological processes and fisheries in marginal seas. The complex spatiotemporal variability of fronts and their effects on biological processes in the Indonesian seas remain poorly understood. This study aimed to address this knowledge gap by investigating the seasonal and interannual variability of fronts and their influence on chlorophyll-a, a key indicator of phytoplankton biomass and primary productivity. The study identified a high frontal probability in south Java Island during austral winter and El Niño years. Wind-driven upwelling was found to be a major factor in front generation and promoting phytoplankton growth. The findings of this study will improve the theoretical knowledge of regional dynamics, local primary production, and the carbon cycle in the Indonesian seas, benefiting fisheries management and ecosystem conservation efforts.