The final frontier? The European Union and the governance of outer space

ABSTRACT Outer space offers great potential, in terms of technological developments, access to natural resources and possibilities of exploration of and beyond the Moon. However, the exponential growth in the number of satellites, actors and types of space activities creates challenges for the continued Safety, Sustainability and Security (S3) of space activities. These challenges can be summarized as Congestion, Competition and Contestation in space, with all these trends converging (C4). This article explores how the European Union (EU) has over the past two decades been developing a space policy and how it can contribute to an effective, equitable and sustainable global governance of outer space. It argues that the EU is building a solid backbone to become a relevant power in global space governance across its different policies, but also that there is more potential to be realized, especially concerning the shaping future space law and governance.