Antibiotic Resistance in Livestock, Environment and Humans: One health perspective

36 Antibiotic resistance (AR) is a complex, multifaceted global health issue that poses a serious threat to livestock, 37 humans, and the surrounding environment. It entails several elements and numerous potential transmission routes and 38 vehicles that contribute to its development and spread, making it a challenging issue to address. AR is regarded as an 39 One Health issue, as it has been found that livestock, human, and environmental components, all three domains are 40 interconnected, opening up channels for transmission of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB). AR has turned out to be 41 a critical problem mainly because of the overuse and misuse of antibiotics, with the anticipation of 10 million annual 42 AR-associated deaths by 2050. The fact that infectious diseases induced by ARB are no longer treatable with 43 antibiotics foreshadows an uncertain future in the context of health care. Hence, the One Health approach should be 44 emphasized to reduce the impact of AR on livestock, humans, and the environment, ensuring the longevity of the 45 efficacy of both current and prospective antibiotics.