Circulating culprit or therapeutic bullseye: lipoprotein(a) in cardiovascular risk assessment and novel therapeutic prospects

Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] has emerged as a significant player in the realm of cardiovascular disease (CVD), exerting a pivotal role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), aortic valve stenosis (AVS), and overall cardiovascular (CV) and all-cause mortality. Since its discovery in 1963 by Kåre Berg, our understanding of Lp(a) has undergone significant evolution. This comprehensive review delves into the genetics, structure, assembly, and inter-population differences of Lp(a), shedding light on its intricate involvement in CVD. Genetically, Lp(a) is primarily influenced by variations in the LPA gene. The LPA gene encodes apo(a) and the variation in the kringle domains is the main determinant of plasma Lp(a) levels. Other genetic variants, such as SNPs in the LPA gene region, the pentanucleotide repeat polymorphism, and specific SNPs in the coding sequences of kringle domains, have also been associated with varying Lp(a) concentrations. Additionally, genes outside the LPA locus, including APOE, APOH, and CEPT gene regions, contribute to Lp(a) variability across different populations. Inter-population differences in Lp(a) levels are evident, with ethnicity and sex playing significant roles. Racial disparities in median Lp(a) concentration have been observed, with black individuals often displaying higher levels compared to their white counterparts. The review underscores Lp(a) as an independent, heritable CV risk factor in both primary and secondary settings. High Lp(a) levels are closely linked to the recurrence of myocardial infarction, AVS, and CV events. The necessity of measuring Lp(a) concentration at least once in life to assess an individual's absolute global CV risk is emphasized. Despite substantial progress, many questions remain unanswered about Lp(a), including its physiological role in the cardiovascular system and its involvement in inflammatory and thrombotic processes. Ongoing research holds promise for the development of therapeutic interventions, such as pharmacological agents and apheresis, to mitigate the cardiovascular risks associated with elevated Lp(a) levels. This review highlights the multifaceted nature of Lp(a) in the context of cardiovascular health, emphasizing the importance of continued research efforts to unravel its complexities and develop innovative strategies for managing its associated risks.