Long-term interactive impacts of the invasive shrub, Lonicera maackii, and white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, on a deciduous forest understory

White-tailed deer and invasive plants affect forest understories, but few studies have investigated their interaction. We investigated long-term (11-year) effects of excluding deer and removing the invasive shrub, Lonicera maackii, on plants in southwest Ohio. Deer exclusion enhanced tree seedling richness and density, but reduced annual and bare ground cover. Vine density was reduced by Lonicera, especially where deer were excluded. Seedlings of several tree species, the invasive shrub Euonymous alatus, and the invasive vine E. fortunei, were indicator species of the deer exclosure x Lonicera removal treatment combination. The effect of deer on cover of native species depended on Lonicera treatment: where shrubs were removed, cover was higher where deer were excluded, but where shrubs were present, cover was higher where deer had access. We attribute these interactions to the reduced growth of, and shading by, Lonicera where deer had access and browsed this invasive shrub. Some of these effects were evident in the first 6 years, but are now larger. Other effects were not evident in the earlier evaluation. These findings inform management of areas with high densities of deer and invasive shrubs palatable to deer. Control only of invasive shrubs will reduce native cover and not improve tree regeneration. Managing only deer will increase woody plants but reduce native cover. Management of both stressors is needed to promote tree regeneration and restoration of plant communities.