Removal and the Changing Debate over Executive Power at the Founding

The enduring and protracted debate over the original scope of American presidential power often reduces to a simple question: What did the words ‘executive power’ in the Article II vesting clause of the US Constitution originally mean? Yet this singular preoccupation has concealed a crucial historical transformation. To bring this underappreciated shift into focus, this article offers four observations on the great 1789 congressional debate over the removal of executive officers: first, the debate was unexpected; second, it covered new ground; third, during the course of it, participants openly changed their minds; fourth, it remained unresolved until the end. Rather than attempting to settle the issue of removal that has divided scholars and jurists for so long, this article instead offers these observations in hopes of redirecting our focus: to see that the removal debate was marked by uncertainty and confusion because the debate over executive power was itself changing at this time. Eighteenth-century Americans had been debating executive power since long before declaring independence, but the question that had animated that debate for close to a century began to change after the Constitution was ratified. As the question mutated, so too did the dispute itself, and, with that, understandings of executive power. The removal debate was one of the key markers of this important transformation. There remains no shortage of interest in the historical foundations of presidential power. We misapprehend what Founding-era Americans thought about executive power unless we appreciate how the framework of debate was itself changing at the time of the Constitution’s birth.