The grimace scale: a useful tool for assessing pain in laboratory animals.

Accurately and promptly assessing pain in experimental animals is extremely important to avoid unnecessary suffering of the animals and to enhance the reproducibility of experiments. This is a key concern for veterinarians, animal caretakers, and researchers from the perspectives of veterinary care and animal welfare. Various methods including ethology, immunohistochemistry, electrophysiology, and molecular biology are used for pain assessment. However, the grimace scale, which was developed by taking cues from interpreting pain through facial expressions of non-verbal infants, has become recognized as a very simple and practical method for objectively evaluating pain levels by scoring changes in an animal's expressions. This method, which was first implemented with mice approximately 10 years ago, is now being applied to various experimental animals and is widely used in research settings. This review focuses on the usability of the grimace scale from the "cage-side" perspective, aiming to make it a more user-friendly tool for those involved in animal experiments. Differences in facial expressions in response to pain in various animals, examples of applying the grimace scale, current automated analytical methods, and future prospects are discussed.