LC–MS/MS analysis of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in bee bread and commercial pollen from Brazil

Beehive products, particularly pollen, are among the foodstuffs that may contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), prompting concern due to their negative effects on humans, such as hepatotoxic potential. Based on these aspects, this study represents the first investigation into eight PAs present in samples of bee bread (n = 16) and commercial pollens (n = 15) from Brazil utilizing liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry in tandem. Our findings showed the presence of at least two PAs in all samples analyzed (n = 31), with monocrotaline, senecionine, senecionine N-oxide, and retrorsine emerging as the most frequently abundant in the Brazilian samples. The PAs sum varied widely (from 268 to 263,849 µg kg⁻¹), with 77.4% of the samples exceeding the maximum limit established by the European Union (500 µg kg⁻¹). Therefore, this study demonstrates that bee pollen and bee bread are foods with high levels of PAs and highlights that further studies related to PAs and beehive products are necessary so that actions are taken to minimize risks to consumers and safeguard the beekeeping industry.