Is retrograde menstruation a universal, recurrent, physiological phenomenon? A systematic review of the evidence in humans and non-human primates

What are the quantitative, qualitative and temporal patterns of retrograde mentruation? The extreme quantitative and qualitative heterogeneity of the available studies prevents the definitive conclusion that retrograde menstruation is a universal and consistent phenomenon during the reproductive period. Retrograde menstruation has been defined as a universal, physiological phenomenon that occurs similarly in about 90% of menstruators during the reproductive period. However, uncertainties still exists in terms of the event frequency, total amount and cellular composition of retrograde menstruation and the differences between individuals with versus those without endometriosis. Two systematic reviews were performed, one for human studies and one for non-human primate studies. We retrieved studies from the PubMed and Embase databases published between January 1, 1980 and November 1, 2023. Studies published in the English language were included and identified using a combination of MeSH terms. References from relevant publications were systematically screened and further articles were identified using PubMed’s “similar articles” and “cited by” functions. Results were reported in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. Studies that did not report original data or provided a review of the field were excluded. Bias analysis was completed for each included human study by using the Newcastle-Ottawa scoring system. Fifteen studies were finally included in the human systematic review, mostly with limited sample sizes. The macroscopic visualization of blood in PF during menses was reported with a frequency ranging from 9% to 100%. A prevalence of endometrial cells detected in peritoneal fluid ranging from 8% to 75% was reported in the various studies. Controversial findings were reported in relation to patients with endometriosis. Retrograde menstruation has been evaluated cross-sectionally on single occasions, and no information is available on the course of the phenomenon within an entire cycle and between subsequent cycles. Two studies were included in the non-human primate systematic review; one of them showed that retrograde menstruation was observed more frequently in baboons with naturally occurring endometriosis (83%) than in those with a normal pelvis (51%). In humans, peritoneal fluid has often been collected at different cycle phases and not systematically during menstruation. The indication for laparoscopy was not always clear for all participants. A wide variety of methods were used to detect endometrial cells, including cytological staining, cell block analysis, immunocytochemistry and various methods of cell culture. The idea that almost all women experience retrograde menstruation regularly and similarly during their reproductive life is currently unsubstantiated. It is an academic notion accepted with criticism. Development of endometriosis may derive from differences in the frequency or severity of the event. The review was partially funded by Italian Ministry of Health—Current Research IRCCS. PVi serves as co-editor in Chief of Journal of Endometriosis and Uterine Disorders. E.S. serves as Editor in Chief of Human Reproduction Open and discloses research grants from Ferring, Ibsa, Gedeon Richter and Theramex, and honoraria from Ibsa and Gedeon Richter. P.Ve. serves as Associate Editor for Human Reproduction Open; is a member of the Editorial Board of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada, of the Italian Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, and of the International Editorial Board of Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica; has received royalties from Wolters Kluwer for chapters on endometriosis management in the clinical decision support resource UpToDate; and maintains both a public and private gynaecological practice. All other authors declare they have no conflict of interest. N/A