An overview of the occurrence and remediation of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in wastewater-recommendations for cost-effective removal techniques in developing economies

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is a long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid with endocrine-disrupting properties. Data gaps exist on the presence of such carcinogenic emerging contaminants in water resources and their safe removal, particularly in developing countries. Furthermore, the lack of treatment facilities typically designed for contaminants present at trace levels is a growing concern. This study provides an overview of the production, use, and current data on PFOA ending in wastewater treatment plants and highlight the importance of adsorbent-based removal of PFOA from wastewater. Research studies highlight that traditional wastewater treatment methods, including using low-pressure membranes, struggle to eliminate PFOA effectively. In contrast, biochar-based nanomaterials and composites used as adsorbents have emerged as a promising removal technique. However, the adsorption of PFOA is governed by multiple mechanisms, including electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic interactions, ligand exchange processes, and hydrogen bonding. We recommend that using adsorbent-based filter beds can be a cost-effective and sustainable solution for managing PFOA in wastewater, particularly in developing economies.