Re-evaluating the likely presence of Spodoptera frugiperda in Indonesia in 2015 through re-assessment of neglected maize field sample collections from Lampung

The invasive fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith), poses a significant global threat with serious economic implications. Global concern heightened following the first major outbreak in Africa in 2016. Our research, which confirmed the presence of FAW in Indonesia in 2015 through re-examined samples from a maize field in Lampung region of Indonesia, supports the hypothesis that the invasion pattern does not follow the predicted west-to-east chronological timeline. Historical records and reidentification suggest that FAW may have been established in Indonesia, Africa, and Australia as early as nineteenth century, suggesting its potential presence in these regions much earlier than previously thought. The spread of FAW could be linked to the movement of people and plants such as maize or Para grass (Brachiaria mutica), at least at the end of the nineteenth century. This underscores the importance of rigorous identification methods for accurately tracking invasive species like FAW. Analyzing these historical records alongside the genetic structure of populations in Southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia, is crucial for future research aimed at developing effective management strategies to mitigate the impact on the global agriculture.