Seven decades of exploring planetary interiors with rotating convection experiments

The interiors of many planets consist mostly of fluid layers. When these layers are subject to superadiabatic temperature or compositional gradients, turbulent convection transports heat and momentum. In addition, planets are fast rotators. Thus, the key process that underpins planetary evolution, the dynamo action, flow patterns and more, is rotating convection. Because planetary interiors are inaccessible to direct observation, experiments offer physically consistent models that are crucial to guide our understanding. If we can fully understand the laboratory model, we may eventually fully understand the original. Experimentally reproducing rotating thermal convection relevant to planetary interiors comes with specific challenges, e.g. modelling the central gravity field of a planet that is parallel to the temperature gradient. Three classes of experiments tackle this challenge. One approach consists of using an alternative central force field, such as the electric force. These are, however, weaker than gravity and require going to space. Another method entails rotating the device fast enough so that the centrifugal force supersedes Earth's gravity. This mimics the equatorial regions of a planet. Lastly, by using the actual lab gravity aligned with the rotation axis, insight into the polar regions is gained. These experiments have been continuously refined during the past seven decades. We review their evolution, from the early days of visualising the onset patterns of convection, over central force field experiments in spacecrafts, liquid metal experiments, to the latest optical velocity mapping of rotating magnetoconvection in sulfuric acid inside high-field magnets. We show how innovative experimental design and emerging experimental techniques advanced our understanding and painted a more realistic picture of planetary interiors, including Earth's liquid metal outer core.