Evolving Escherichia coli to use a tRNA with a non-canonical fold as an adaptor of the genetic code.

All known bacterial tRNAs adopt the canonical cloverleaf 2D and L-shaped 3D structures. We aimed to explore whether alternative tRNA structures could be introduced in bacterial translation. To this end, we crafted a vitamin-based genetic system to evolve Escherichia coli toward activity of structurally non-canonical tRNAs. The system reliably couples (escape frequency <10-12) growth with the activities of a novel orthogonal histidine suppressor tRNA (HisTUAC) and of the cognate ARS (HisS) via suppression of a GTA valine codon in the mRNA of an enzyme in thiamine biosynthesis (ThiN). Suppression results in the introduction of an essential histidine and thereby confers thiamine prototrophy. We then replaced HisTUAC in the system with non-canonical suppressor tRNAs and selected for growth. A strain evolved to utilize mini HisT, a tRNA lacking the D-arm, and we identified the responsible mutation in an RNase gene (pnp) involved in tRNA degradation. This indicated that HisS, the ribosome, and EF-Tu accept mini HisT ab initio, which we confirmed genetically and through in vitro translation experiments. Our results reveal a previously unknown flexibility of the bacterial translation machinery for the accepted fold of the adaptor of the genetic code and demonstrate the power of the vitamin-based suppression system.