Non-target effects of biopesticides on stingless bees (Apidae, Meliponini): Recent trends and insights

The international market for biopesticides has grown in recent years, increasing the probability of pollinator exposure to these products. Even though stingless bees are the main group of wild tropical pollinators, the non-target effects of biopesticides have scarcely been studied in these bees. Herein, we performed a systematic review of the literature following the PRISMA guidelines and provided a summary of recent trends in the field. One of our main findings was that most of the studies found significant effects on various of the variables investigated, such as increases in mortality, development modifications, behavioral disruptions, morphophysiological alterations, immune and microbiome reductions, and effects on reproduction. These findings demonstrate that the presumption that biopesticides are safe for stingless bees is not true for many species. However, more holistic protocols using field tests should be carried out to provide realistic data for an appropriate risk assessment of biopesticides in these bees.