Elevation-dependent dynamics of soil properties in a hilly watershed: a landform-based approach.

Understanding the variation of soil physical properties in relation to land use and elevation is essential for modeling soil-landscape relationships and sustainable land management. Hence, this study investigates the spatio-temporal variability of soil physical properties in a lower Himalayan watershed, where agriculture, forest, and grasslands are dominant. Samples from 104 sites in a 422 km² watershed were collected using a gridded sampling scheme (2 km × 2 km resolution) over 57 weeks. Spatial patterns were analyzed using the Kriging technique, and Spearman rank correlation was employed to identify landform-dependent correlations between soil properties and elevation. The interdependence of the properties was detected using principal component analysis (PCA), while the random forest (RF) approach explored the factors influencing electrical conductivity (EC), organic content (OC), soil temperature (ST), and soil moisture (SM). The results revealed that forest landforms have higher coarser fractions (40%) compared to other landforms, while grasslands have higher soil fines (66%). A positive correlation was observed for elevation with sand content (0.15*), organic content (0.42*), and specific gravity (0.03), while a negative correlation was observed for silt (0.10), clay (0.21*), bulk density (0.52*), electrical conductivity (0.41*), soil moisture (0.28*), and temperature (0.31*). Elevation, soil texture, and specific gravity were identified as critical controls for EC, OC, ST, and SM, emphasizing the importance of soil properties, especially elevation and texture, in shaping spatial distributions. These findings contribute to creating a high-resolution regional inventory for effective land use management, adaptation to climate change, and improved livelihood, specifically for mountain people.