High-abundance and low-cost anodes for sodium-ion batteries

Nowadays, sodium-ion batteries are considered the most promising large-scale energy storage systems (EESs) due to the low cost and wide distribution of sodium sources as well as the similar working principle to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Therefore, screening suitable materials with high abundance, low cost, and excellent reliability and modified with different strategies based on them is the key point for the development of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). In addition, the ideal anodes with high abundance, and low cost elements also greatly influence the cost of SIB systems, determining the large-scale application. Herein, recent advances in carbon, iron, manganese, and phosphorus-based anodes of various types, such as hard carbon, iron oxides, manganese oxides, and red phosphorus, are highlighted. The various sodium storage mechanisms and structure-function properties for these four types of materials are summarized and analyzed in detail. Considering the commercial profits that the EESs can bring and their suitability for mass electrode manufacturing, the participation of high-abundance and low-cost elements such as Fe, Mn, C, and P is convincing and encouraging.