The development of phrase-frames in EFL learners’ essays: Variability, structures, and functions

Phrase-frames (i.e., p-frames) are a type of discontinuous formulaic language that have long been of interest to linguists in L2 writing research. Studies have explored p-frames in different types of texts, but few have investigated p-frames in learners’ essays, and it remains unclear at which level learners will begin to use p-frames in native-like ways. Drawing on a self-compiled corpus of 1061 learner essays, this study explores the four-word p-frames used by Chinese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners across four proficiency groups (pre-B1, B1, B2, C1&C2) and analyzes the p-frames regarding their variability, structures, and functions. The study also compares the p-frames used by learners with those used by L1 English-speaking students in terms of the three characteristics mentioned above. The results show that: (1) learners at more advanced proficiency levels use more varied p-frames and more function word frames; (2) when learners have achieved C1&C2 levels they can use p-frames in similar ways to L1 English-speaking students regarding variability and structure; and (3) pre-B1 learners are less skilled in using referential and discourse organizing expressions, probably due to a lower capability in the use of function word structures and cohesive devices. The findings help to advance our understanding of p-frame development across proficiency levels, and offer some pedagogical implications for the teaching and learning of formulaic language.