N, P co-doped graphite felt cathode for efficient removal of ciprofloxacin in an ascorbic acid-coupled electro-Fenton process: Simultaneously enhancing H2O2 generation and Fe3+/Fe2+ cycling

To enhance the contaminant removal efficiency of the electro-Fenton (E-Fenton) process, a nitrogen and phosphorus co-doped graphite felt (NPGF) cathode was synthesized using an anodic oxidation technique. An ascorbic acid-coupled NPGF E-Fenton system was then established for the degradation of ciprofloxacin (CIP). The NPGF cathode featured abundant oxygen-containing functional groups (such as -COOH and -OH), which enhanced the selectivity of oxygen reduction and facilitated the formation of H₂O₂. The introduction of N and P doping disrupted the charge balance within the carbon framework, accelerating electron transfer. Together, the NPGF electrode and ascorbic acid enhanced the cycling of Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺ while preventing the formation of iron sludge. Under optimal conditions (ascorbic acid concentration of 0.3 mM, current density of 2.0 mA cm⁻², pH of 3.0, aeration rate of 0.6 L min⁻¹, and Fe²⁺ concentration of 0.2 mM), CIP was completely removed within 20 min. The NPGF electrode exhibited excellent stability, maintaining 95.35% CIP removal even after 8 cycles. Analysis revealed that singlet oxygen primarily mediated the degradation of CIP, with its concentration measured at 1.23 × 10⁻⁷ M. Density functional theory was used to analyze the characteristics and potential attack sites of CIP, enabling the proposal of plausible degradation pathways. Toxicity simulations and Escherichia coli growth inhibition experiments demonstrated a reduction in the toxicity of CIP and its intermediate products. This study offers a valuable reference for improving the efficiency of E-Fenton technology in antibiotic wastewater treatment.