Environmental impacts of solar PV energy systems for small-island communities in Indonesia: A life cycle assessment approach

Renewable energy plays a significant role in the current worldwide energy demand that projected to grow by 64 %. Indonesia, a country endowed with abundant renewable energy resources, including solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, has set an ambitious target to increase the renewable energy share to 23 % by 2025 and 31 % by 2050, aiming for net-zero emissions by 2060. However, providing electricity to over 17,508 islands (of which about 77 % are considered small islands) presents technical, logistical, and environmental challenges. This study conducts a life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) on solar PV systems for a small island in Indonesia with an area of approximately 27.65 km², assessing two end-of-life (EOL) strategies: landfilling and recycling, thereby addressing a significant gap in sustainable energy deployment for small islands. Using the ReCiPe method in SimaPro, findings indicate that recycling reduces environmental impacts by 25 % over landfilling in the following endpoint categories: human health and ecosystem burdens. Sensitivity analysis suggests that placing recycling facilities nearer to Medang Island could further cut impacts by 84 %, highlighting transport's major role in EOL management's environmental footprint. These results advocate for localized recycling infrastructure, improved transport strategies, and tax incentives to enhance the sustainability of solar PV deployment not only in Indonesian island settings but also similar small-island communities worldwide. This study adds value by highlighting the importance of EOL considerations in renewable energy planning for small islands, contributing to broader sustainability goals and informing policy decisions. Future research should refine recycling technologies and explore alternative fuels to minimize solar energy's environmental impacts. Limitations due to reliance on general databases and data assumptions underscore the need for further work to improve life cycle assessment (LCA) reliability in small island applications.