Karyotype evolution and speciation in Orthoptera.

Karyotype evolution might fuel speciation and can thereby contribute to species diversity. To test the hypothesis that speciation and karyotype change are linked, we estimated anagenetic and cladogenetic rates of karyotype evolution as well as speciation rates in Orthoptera. We compiled the male diploid chromosome number and the number of visible chromosome arms (the fundamental number) from published sources for 1,541 species. Chromosome-associated speciation rates were estimated by jointly modelling cladogenetic and anagenetic character evolution and the phylogenetic birth-death process in a Bayesian statistical framework using a subset of 516 species from 14 families. Our findings unveiled heterogeneity among orthopteran families in the pace of karyotype evolution and whether it was linked to speciation. In 6/14 clades, we found evidence supporting speciation-associated (cladogenetic) karyotype changes, while in 6/14 clades karyotype evolution was primarily anagenetic. The remaining clades (2/14) showed uncertainty in favour of either model. We further analyzed whether flightless phenotype, and thus less mobile species, showed higher rates of karyotype evolution. We showed that the flightless phenotype is associated with the rate of chromosome loss. The finding indicates contrasting patterns of karyotype evolution within specific orthopteran lineages, thus emphasizing substantial diversity in the pace of this evolutionary process. It also implies that substantial changes in chromosome number, arising from instances of chromosomal gains and losses, are recurring events in orthopterans that are associated with reproductive isolation and speciation, at least in some groups.